Spain’s Transformation (1833-1868): From Monarchy to Revolution
Spain’s Transformation (1833-1868)
From Old Regime to Constitutional Monarchy
The death of Fernando VII in 1833 ushered in a transformative period in Spain, giving rise to new political, economic, social, and cultural rights. During the reign of his daughter, Elizabeth II, the country transitioned from the Old Regime to bourgeois liberalism. A constitutional monarchy based on liberal principles was established, laying the foundations for a capitalist economy and a new class society.
Regencies and the Rise of Elizabeth II
Elizabeth II’s minority was marked by two regencies: first, her mother, Queen Maria Cristina (1833-1840), and then General Baldomero Espartero (1840-1843). In 1843, a military revolt led by Narváez ousted Espartero, who went into exile in London. To avoid another regency, Elizabeth II’s coronation was expedited, and she became queen at thirteen.
The Moderate Decade (1844-1854)
Under the influence of her mother, Elizabeth II harbored distrust towards liberal progressives. Her marriage to her cousin, Francis of Assisi, in 1864, proved a failure, and her private conduct further weakened her political standing. Despite rumors, she remained popular until the early 1860s. However, her favoritism towards moderates made her position increasingly vulnerable.
The Moderate Decade began with General Narváez forming a government. The moderate party, supported by the conservative bourgeoisie, ruled for ten years. They repealed the 1837 Constitution and drafted a new one:
- The 1845 Constitution replaced national sovereignty with joint sovereignty of the king and Parliament, granting more power to the Crown.
- The Concordat of 1851 settled the rupture with the Vatican, recognizing Catholicism as the state religion.
The moderates established a centralized regime, creating the province as a new demarcation, reserving mayoral appointments for the Crown, reforming the tax system, creating the Bank of Spain, and establishing the Civil Guard in 1844.
The Progressive Biennium (1854-1856)
Internal divisions and corruption scandals within the moderate party led to a shift in support towards liberal progressives. In 1854, General Leopoldo O’Donnell led a revolt known as “The Vicalvarada.” The Queen recalled Espartero, initiating the Progressive Biennium.
This period saw radical measures, including the expulsion of Jesuits and a ban on religious processions. The 1855 General Confiscation Act, prepared by Pascual Madoz, affected the secular clergy and municipal property, leading to a break with the Church. A general law of Railways was also established in 1855.
The Second Conservative Liberal Decade (1856-1868)
Pressure from the Crown and the Church led to the return of the moderates. This period saw governments led by Narváez and O’Donnell. Landowners, the conservative military, and the Church dominated this era. The seizure was halted, and privileges were granted to the Church.
The Union Liberal government under O’Donnell coincided with a period of prosperity, marked by good harvests and trade expansion. An active foreign policy saw military interventions in Cochin, North Africa, and Santo Domingo.
Meanwhile, aspirations for greater freedom and civil rights grew in Spain. The Democratic Party developed, republicanism emerged, and the first workers’ organizations were created. In 1864, Narváez returned to government, with González Bravo as Minister of Interior. Student protests following the dismissal of university professors were met with violence (Night of Saint Daniel). Progressive pronouncements led to a harsh crackdown and executions (Quarter of San Gil).
The Glorious Revolution (1868)
The Queen’s declining popularity and repressive measures led to an alliance between progressives and Democrats, who signed a pact in Ostend (1866) to dethrone Elizabeth II. In September 1868, a revolt led by Admiral Topete, supported by Generals Prim and Serrano, began the Glorious Revolution. Popular uprisings spread throughout the country, and Elizabeth II fled to France.