Spain’s Transition to Democracy (1975-1982)
The Political Transition
After Franco’s death, Juan Carlos I’s declaration as king began a complex process of political transition. The scene was marked by sharp differences between Franco’s inner circle (figures like Blas Piñar) and the opposition. The liberal right was weak, grouped around figures like Gil Robles, and supporters of Juan de Borbón. Nationalist forces included Convergència Democràtica de Catalunya (Pujol) and the PNV, while combating anti-ETA terrorism. On the left, the PCE (Partido Comunista de España), PSOE (Felipe González and Alfonso Guerra), and the CCOO union were powerful.
The First Moments of Charles I’s Reign
The Arias Navarro government (November 1975-July 1976) implemented a political plan called “reform.” This controlled change maintained the inviolability of Francoist military officials while aiming for a democratic system based on Francoist laws. The government’s failure to implement credible reforms and its response to social protests led to its dismissal by the king in July 1976.
Suarez’s Government and Political Reform
Adolfo Suárez’s appointment was initially met with disappointment among democrats. In September 1976, Suárez presented a draft law for political reform and began discreet contacts with the democratic opposition. Meanwhile, Francoists, angered by political developments and terrorist attacks by ETA and FRAP, plotted a coup. Suárez appointed a key figure in the army, Gutiérrez Mellado, as vice-president to control the situation. The opposition moved from clandestine activity to open participation. A popular referendum on the political reform bill passed with 94.1% approval, signaling the end of Francoist rule. Much of the opposition supported the reform process.
The Year 1977
The reform process faced threats from right-wing military coup attempts, nationalist terrorists like ETA, and left-wing groups like FRAP. Tensions peaked between January 23 and 29, 1977, with events such as the murder of a student, the kidnapping of five lawyers by FRAP, and the killing of PCE members in Atocha. Massive protests followed in Madrid. Suárez’s political skill allowed him to navigate these obstacles and move towards a democratic regime. The first democratic elections in June 1977 resulted in a victory for Suárez’s centrist UCD (Unión de Centro Democrático), which faced the challenges of creating a new constitution and combating ETA terrorism amidst a deep economic crisis.
The Constitution of 1978 and the State of Autonomies
The Constitutional Process
The Cortes (parliament) elected in 1977 became the constituent assembly. A constitutional commission drafted a text, aiming for consensus to avoid the traditional Spanish pattern of partisan constitutions. The draft, approved by the Congress of Deputies, was put to a referendum and approved in December 1978 with 87.87% of the vote.
The Autonomic Process
Responding to Basque and Catalan demands, Suárez’s government began the autonomic process before the constitution’s formal approval. The Basque government and Catalan and Valencian regional governments were established in 1978. The government promoted the generalization of regional autonomy.
Content of the Constitution
The preliminary title established fundamental principles: a social and democratic state of law, national sovereignty, and parliamentary monarchy. Article 2 affirmed the unity of the nation while recognizing the right to autonomy of nationalities and regions. Title I detailed the rights and duties of Spanish citizens. The only amendment (2006) allowed EU residents to vote in municipal elections. The king was head of state, with the Cortes (Congress of Deputies and Senate), the government (executive branch and prime minister), and the judiciary (including the Constitutional Court) forming the other branches of government. The constitution established legal channels for autonomous communities and the principle of solidarity to address economic disparities between regions.
Democratic Governments and European Integration
The Second Term of UCD and the End of Suárez’s Government (1979-1981)
Following the constitution’s adoption, new elections were held in March 1979, with Suárez’s UCD winning again. However, the moderate left won municipal elections. The 1979-1981 period saw a deterioration of the political situation: ETA’s terrorist campaign, concerns within right-wing military circles, and internal crises within the UCD.
The 1981 Coup Attempt
The attempted coup d’état of February 23, 1981, led by Lieutenant Colonel Antonio Tejero, involved the kidnapping of members of the Cortes and an attempt to seize control of the government.
The Last UCD Government: Calvo Sotelo
Calvo Sotelo’s government (1981-1982) oversaw the UCD’s decline. The passage of a divorce law and Spain’s entry into NATO contributed to the party’s fragmentation. The PSOE’s victory in 1982 marked the end of the UCD, which largely disappeared, with some members joining the right-wing Popular Alliance under Manuel Fraga.