Spain’s Transition to Democracy: From Franco to Freedom

Posted on Sep 25, 2024 in History

The Transition to Democracy in Spain (1975-1978)

1. Introduction

Following Franco’s death in 1975, a delicate political operation began to transition Spain to a parliamentary democracy. The steps taken were:

  1. In 1976, King Juan Carlos I entrusted the government to Adolfo Suárez, who dismantled the Francoist system and negotiated with opposition leaders to pave the way for elections in 1977.
  2. In 1977, elections were held for the Constituent Parliament.
  3. In 1978, the Constitution was adopted, and the regime of autonomies (regional self-government) was accepted.

Adolfo Suárez’s party, the UCD (Union of the Democratic Centre), facilitated the proclamation of Juan Carlos de Borbón as king. The king swore to uphold the Fundamental Principles of the National Movement. The oath and succession took place on November 22nd in a ceremony at the Cortes (parliament).

Franco’s Regime: Two Sectors

Within Franco’s regime, there were two main sectors:

  • Immobility: This sector comprised the old Falange, most of the army (except for a few generals), and vertical trade unionism (except for a few leaders). They believed in the possibility of a “Francoism without Franco” and were resistant to change. They relied on repression by police or paramilitary groups.
  • Opening: Led by figures like Fraga and Silva Muñoz, this sector sought to create political associations. They believed that the Franco regime could not last, especially after Franco’s death, and tried to influence the government towards reform.

The Opposition

Outside the regime, the opposition had two main trends:

  • Moderate: This group’s leaders had not had close contact with the Franco regime, although they had opposed it. They included supporters of the monarchy under Don Juan de Borbón, Democrats, and Radical Liberals.
  • Radical: This group was represented by the traditional and historical left, with a strong worker base. They included the PSOE, PCE, UGT, CNT, USO (Workers’ Trade Union), and CCOO (Workers’ Commissions).

Factors Leading to the Dismantling of the Franco Regime

Several factors contributed to the dismantling of the Franco regime:

  • The exhaustion of the authoritarian model, unable to adapt to the changes in Spain.
  • The role of King Juan Carlos I in promoting reform.
  • The actions of reformist political forces led by Adolfo Suárez.
  • The attitude of the democratic opposition, which compromised on some of its principles to facilitate change.
  • International influence favoring Spain’s democratization.

Popular protests demanding freedom and the release of political prisoners played a significant role. The Democratic Coordination platform made the release of prisoners a condition for any democratic reform.

2. Development of the Transition

The transition was challenging, with two key moments: the legalization of the PCE and the attempted coup d’état on February 23, 1981. Both were successfully overcome, and the transition was confirmed with the PSOE’s victory in the 1982 elections.

The Role of King Juan Carlos I

King Juan Carlos I’s political role didn’t fully emerge until November 1975. Initially, he remained in the background, respecting Franco’s plans. The king’s project, inherited from his father Juan de Borbón in 1946, was to establish a democratic system in Spain. This project was supported by the capitalist sector, part of the opposition to Franco, and some supporters within the Franco regime. It also received support from the U.S. and other Western countries.

The Threat of the Civil War Legacy

The legacy of the Civil War loomed over the transition. Both the extreme left and the extreme right (with support from some in the army) posed a threat. The danger was that any political instability could trigger violence. The solution was for the opposition to control its followers and prevent the army from intervening in the political process, thus safeguarding the transition.

The Transition Begins

The transition, led by Juan Carlos I, began within the framework of Francoist law. He swore to uphold the Principles of the Movement and took possession of the Crown before the Francoist Cortes. He respected the Organic Law of the State in appointing his first prime minister, Arias Navarro. However, in his speech to the Cortes, he expressed his support for change.

Arias Navarro’s Government

Arias Navarro’s government represented a continuation of Francoism. However, three ministers were appointed who favored change: José Mª de Areilza (a collaborator of Don Juan), Antonio Garrigues, and Fraga. A Francoist general was appointed for military affairs. Two key appointments for the future were Adolfo Suárez and Torcuato Fernández-Miranda.

The government faced increasing opposition: demonstrations for amnesty, unrest in the Basque Country (ETA with popular support), and a general strike in Vitoria (March 1976), which was harshly repressed (five dead and dozens injured). Fraga (Minister of the Interior) was discredited after justifying the police action with his infamous phrase “the street is mine.” The events of Montejurra (Navarra) during a Carlist gathering, where factions of the same ideology clashed with firearms, resulting in two deaths, further highlighted the tensions. The opposition grew impatient and formed the “Democratic Coordination” platform, refusing to accept the continuation of the Franco regime, which was Arias Navarro’s intention (with only minor adjustments).

Suárez’s Appointment

In 1976, the King and Areilza traveled to the U.S. (seeking support) and declared their intention to establish a democratic system in Spain. Given Arias Navarro’s resistance to change, the King requested his resignation. Adolfo Suárez was chosen as the new prime minister from a shortlist presented by the King. He came from the Falangist ranks, and few believed he was the right person to bring democracy to Spain. Nobody wanted to be part of the new government, so almost all the ministers were young and new to politics.

Suárez was chosen for his ability to:

  • Convince the Francoist political system in the Cortes to dismantle Francoism.
  • Respect the law in force (as the Cortes could make changes).
  • Avoid the army’s intervention in the reform project.

Suárez’s political program was based on two points:

  1. Political Reform Act: Drafted by Torcuato Fernández-Miranda (chosen as president of the Cortes by the King), this act had to be approved by the Cortes and in a referendum to establish a democracy. The law provided for the establishment of a parliament with two chambers, Congress and Senate, elected by universal suffrage. It also announced future democratic elections with the participation of political parties. This law was approved by the Francoist Cortes (through an emergency procedure). It did not specify the details of the new political system but eliminated obstacles posed by the Franco regime. Franco’s laws were effectively overturned by the decision of the Francoist Cortes.
  2. Call for Democratic Elections: Elections were called for June 1977 to elect a new Cortes that would develop a democratic constitution.

Why Dismantle Francoism through the Francoist Cortes?

  • It ensured a safe transition.
  • It guaranteed the preservation of the social and economic status of the Francoist elite.
  • It ensured the predominance of the right in politics.
  • It avoided a potential backlash from the more radical left.

The Political Reform Act

The Political Reform Act was debated in Parliament, overwhelmingly approved, and submitted to a referendum. It passed with a majority (94%). From this point on, elections could be held, but the support of the opposition was needed.

Suárez’s Relations with the Opposition

Suárez’s relations with the opposition began in 1976 when he granted a partial political amnesty, later extended to include all political prisoners. He legalized the right to strike, freedom of association, and promulgated the Electoral Law. He held meetings with the opposition to legalize political parties. Eventually, all parties were legalized as their leaders were willing to cooperate. He met with Felipe González (PSOE), who offered his support. The PCE (the largest and best organized) was more confrontational, arguing that the Political Reform Act was undemocratic and that elections should be called by a provisional government that included the opposition. However, after a meeting with Suárez, Santiago Carrillo (leader of the PCE) agreed to collaborate. The army opposed the legalization of the PCE.

Suárez and the Army

Suárez was aware of the hardline Francoists within the army, such as Girón de Velasco and Blas Piñar (who were very influential). He sought support from more liberal military figures like Díez Alegría and Gutiérrez Mellado. He dismissed the hardline Minister of Defence and appointed Gutiérrez Mellado, who promoted supporters of political reform within the army and replaced hardline elements in the police and the Civil Guard. Suárez wanted to reassure the military that the reforms would not lead to anarchy or revolution. He emphasized that he was dealing with the Communists as a political party, not with terrorist groups.

Resurgence of Terrorism

During this period, there was a resurgence of terrorism. The Basque Country was in a state of political turmoil, demanding amnesty, which Suárez granted. However, ETA attacks continued. GRAPO (First October Anti-Fascist Resistance Groups) also carried out bombings and kidnappings of Francoist figures. Extreme right-wing terrorism also emerged, with the Atocha massacre (the murder of lawyers linked to the PCE). These were provocative actions, but Suárez managed to unite most of the opposition, and almost all the leaders published a statement denouncing terrorism and supporting Suárez.

The 1977 Elections

The elections to the Constituent Cortes were held in June 1977. Four major political forces participated:

  • UCD (Union of the Democratic Centre): Suárez’s party, a coalition of centrist and democratic right-wing groups, including Christian Democrats, liberals, social democrats, and reformist Francoists.
  • PSOE (Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party): Led by Felipe González and Alfonso Guerra, it defined itself as a democratic socialist and Marxist party.
  • PCE (Communist Party of Spain): Led by Santiago Carrillo and Dolores Ibárruri, it remained a bastion of the left and the anti-Franco struggle.
  • AP (Popular Alliance): Led by Manuel Fraga, it represented the Francoist right.
  • Nationalist Parties: PNV (Basque Nationalist Party) and CDC (Democratic Convergence of Catalonia).

The UCD won the election, and the PSOE became the second largest political force. The Cortes, with these representatives, began drafting the constitution, which was based on a political agreement between the different forces. The 1978 Constitution was promulgated, and the system of autonomies was created.

The Economic Crisis

The political transition coincided with an international economic crisis, the deepest in Europe since World War II. The dollar crisis and OPEC’s quadrupling of oil prices severely impacted developed economies. The rising oil prices also had a significant impact on Spain. In 1979, a new recession hit, exacerbating the crisis. It was an industrial crisis, with a lack of competitiveness. The unemployment rate rose sharply, reaching 10%. Errors in tackling the crisis were substantial, undoubtedly due to the priority given to political problems. It took almost four years from the start of the recession for significant changes in economic policy to be implemented.

The Moncloa Pacts

The Moncloa Pacts, signed on October 25, 1977, by the parliamentary parties and ratified by Congress, were the first major set of measures to address the crisis in Spain. Their objectives were to reduce inflation and implement reforms to share the costs of the crisis equitably. Measures included the devaluation of the peseta, control of public spending, and reduction of energy costs. The pacts laid the foundation for tax reform and the reform of Social Security. With a delay of almost a century, Spain’s tax structure aligned with that of other developed countries, allowing for the first steps towards building a welfare state.

3. Conclusion

Alongside the political opposition, popular mobilizations (strikes and demonstrations) led by anti-Franco forces played a significant role in the decisions taken during the transition. These mobilizations were both labor/trade union-related and political, demanding freedoms, amnesty, and autonomy for the historical nationalities (Basque Country, Catalonia, and Galicia).

New elections were held in March 1979. The UCD’s victory marked the beginning of a period of stability, despite the enormous difficulties. A setback in the municipal elections (April) revealed the party’s weakness and internal divisions (they could not agree on basic reforms, such as education, university autonomy law, and the law on incompatibility of public offices). Suárez was more effective in dismantling Francoism than in building democracy. He never achieved undisputed leadership.

In 1980, his government faced a motion of censure, leading to almost total paralysis, compounded by an increase in violence. There were fears of a coup, which materialized on February 23, 1981. Suárez resigned, and the coup plotters took advantage of the situation, storming the Congress of Deputies. It was not until the King appeared on television at dawn and denounced the rebels that it became clear the coup had failed.

Calvo Sotelo’s government, after a brief period, entered a phase of decline until, in August 1982, he dissolved Parliament and called for general elections. In 1982, the Socialists came to power with Felipe González (PSOE), and the transition was complete. The new democratic system was secured. Regardless of whether the right or the left won elections, the system would endure.

In 1996, the right returned to power with the PP (Popular Party) under José María Aznar. In 2004, the Socialist José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero became prime minister. The alternation of parties in government did not threaten the democratic system, demonstrating that democracy was firmly established in Spain.