Spain’s Transition to Democracy: From Franco to Freedom
Spain’s Transition to Democracy
Background
In November 1975, following Franco’s death, several social and political factors converged, driving the need for regime change. The political succession within the Franco regime had been disrupted by the assassination of Prime Minister Admiral Carrero Blanco. Opposition movements gained momentum, uniting to prepare for a peaceful end to the regime. This was supported by international sentiment favoring change, particularly after Portugal’s Carnation Revolution. Spain’s economic development and modernization, along with the influence of tourism and migration, fostered a shift in traditional attitudes, especially among the younger generation. The economic crisis of 1973 further fueled social tensions and the desire for change.
The Final Crisis and the Beginning of the Transition
Prime Minister Carlos Arias Navarro announced his intention to liberalize the regime, polarizing the Francoists between those favoring openness and the hardliners of the “bunker.” As Franco’s health declined, the Democratic Board, led by the Communist Party and encompassing various leftist forces and personalities, emerged as a united anti-Franco front. The Law of Political Associations, met with resistance, was seen by opposition groups as superficial. Political instability led to increased protests and crackdowns. The pressure from ETA and FRAP forced the government to demonstrate its authority, resulting in death sentences in the Burgos trials, sparking international protests. The decolonization of the Sahara, coveted by Morocco, added to the tension, culminating in Spain’s withdrawal through the Madrid Agreement. The international economic crisis further exacerbated Spain’s challenges, impacting tourism and increasing unemployment and inflation.
Amidst these circumstances, Franco died, and Juan Carlos I was crowned king. International representation at the coronation signaled support for the king and political change. The king’s speech hinted at democratization, and a partial pardon released some political prisoners. However, the continuity of Arias Navarro’s government fueled distrust among opposition groups. Repression continued, and a general strike in Vitoria further escalated tensions. Arias Navarro resigned, replaced by Adolfo Suárez.
The First Suárez Government and the First Elections
Suárez’s appointment surprised many. His reformist government included ministers who advocated for rights and freedoms, the legalization of political parties, and autonomy. He announced an amnesty and called for elections within a year, initiating contact with all political forces, including Communist leader Santiago Carrillo. The Law for Political Reform, passed by the Francoist Cortes, established the procedure for holding elections by universal suffrage. The referendum held in December 1976 resulted in a victory for the reformist path.
The following months were marked by violence from both right-wing and left-wing terrorist groups, aiming to destabilize the country. The legalization of the PCE, while essential for building a credible democracy, sparked fears of a coup, particularly among conservatives in the army. On Holy Saturday 1977, the PCE was legalized, and prominent exiles returned. The first democratic elections since 1936 were held on June 15, resulting in the following key outcomes:
- Democratic Centre Union (UCD): Suárez’s newly formed center-right coalition won the election but without an absolute majority.
- Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party (PSOE): Led by Felipe González and Alfonso Guerra, the PSOE presented a renewed image, appealing to the desire for change.
- Communist Party of Spain (PCE): Despite not achieving its electoral goals, the PCE became the third political force.
- Popular Alliance: Led by Manuel Fraga, the party’s association with the Franco regime hindered its electoral success.
- Nationalist Groups: Moderate nationalist parties achieved significant results in their respective territories, including Pacte Democrátic per Catalunya and the Basque Nationalist Party.
- Leftist Nationalists: Groups like Esquerra Republicana in Catalonia and Euskadi Eskerra in the Basque Country also gained representation.
The Constituent Period
The newly formed government addressed pressing economic problems, including rampant inflation and unemployment. The Moncloa Pacts, agreements between political parties to address the economic crisis, led to social unrest due to unpopular measures. The government also promoted pre-autonomy in Catalonia and the Basque Country. The Constitution was approved in a referendum on December 6, 1978, followed by new elections, with similar results to the previous ones. Suárez formed his third government. Local elections were held in April 1979, with UCD winning mayoralties in half of the provincial capitals, while the PSOE and coalitions held major cities. Nationalist parties gained strong representation in the Basque Country and Catalonia.
Problems in UCD and the Coup Attempt
Suárez’s third term was marked by instability within the UCD, particularly regarding autonomy and the ongoing economic crisis. Terrorism, especially from ETA, continued to destabilize the country. These factors, coupled with nostalgia for the Franco regime among some sectors of the army, fueled fears of a coup. The PSOE, presenting itself as an alternative, gained momentum. Suárez resigned and was succeeded by Calvo Sotelo. During Calvo Sotelo’s investiture on February 23, 1981, a coup attempt led by Civil Guard Lieutenant Colonel Antonio Tejero interrupted the proceedings. The king’s televised address denouncing the coup and supporting the Constitution proved crucial, as the majority of the army remained loyal to the government, leading to the coup’s failure.
Conclusion
Calvo Sotelo’s government, with the support of the PSOE, advanced the autonomy process. Spain’s entry into NATO faced opposition from leftist parties. The UCD’s internal divisions intensified, leading to Suárez’s departure to found the CDS. In the 1982 elections, the PSOE won an absolute majority, ushering in a new era. This marked the end of the transition period and the beginning of democratic normality, with Spain integrated into Europe and its political and economic systems modernized. The social and ideological transformation during these years allowed Spain to overcome the risks of the past and face the challenges of the future.