Spain’s Transition to Democracy: Reform, Consensus, and Challenges
1.1 Factors Favoring Democratization
Several factors, both domestic and international, favored Spain’s transition to democracy:
- Socio-economic conditions: Spanish society had become very similar to modern Europe.
- Franco’s institutions: Ironically, some of Franco’s own institutions opened possibilities for political change.
- The King’s commitment: King Juan Carlos I, since June 1976, proclaimed his commitment to democracy.
- Adolfo Suarez’s role: A man of the regime, Adolfo Suarez, led the change from within Francoist institutions, legalizing political parties and trade unions.
- Opposition’s willingness to compromise: The democratic opposition accepted Suarez’s reformist model.
- International context: The dictatorships in Portugal (Carnation Revolution, 1974) and Greece (end of the Colonels’ dictatorship) had ended.
1.2 The Failure of the Arias Navarro Government
On November 22, 1975, Juan Carlos I became King and Head of State. On December 4, Carlos Arias Navarro was confirmed as Prime Minister. The first government of the monarchy included some reformist ministers. The King appointed Torcuato Fernandez Miranda as President of the Parliament and the Council of the Realm. The government prepared for gradual reform, but the democratic opposition advocated a complete break. Tension was high.
Arias Navarro, a Franco loyalist, resisted significant changes. He opposed amnesty, autonomy, constituent elections, freedom of association, and repealing repressive Franco-era laws. This led to a political deadlock and mass mobilizations by the opposition during the first quarter of 1976, affecting factories, utilities, communications, and demanding amnesty and autonomy for Euskadi and Catalonia. ETA resumed its terrorist campaign in January 1976.
On March 26, the opposition formed the “Democratic Coordination” after clashes in Vitoria resulted in five deaths. The government’s credibility plummeted, and Arias Navarro resigned on July 1.
1.3 The Government of Adolfo Suárez: Triumph of Reform
Following Arias Navarro’s resignation, the King appointed Adolfo Suárez as Prime Minister. Despite initial skepticism, Suárez pushed forward with reforms. He announced general elections for before June 30, 1977, legalized assembly, demonstration, propaganda, and association rights, and approved a partial amnesty. Suárez also isolated the extreme right and sought dialogue with the opposition, including the PSOE and even indirect contact with Communist leader Santiago Carrillo.
The Law for Political Reform was crucial, recognizing popular sovereignty, fundamental rights, and creating a democratic bicameral Cortes. Approved by the Francoist Cortes and a referendum, it paved the way for dismantling the Franco regime. The opposition accepted the reform, leading to consensus politics.
Terrorism from both the extreme left and right posed a threat. Elections were held on June 15, 1977, after legalizing political parties, including the PCE, granting another amnesty, dissolving the National Movement, and recognizing the right to form unions freely. Spain also established diplomatic relations with Eastern Bloc countries and Mexico.
Key parties in the election included UCD (Suárez), PSOE (Felipe González), PCE (Carrillo), AP (Manuel Fraga), and Catalan and Basque nationalists. UCD won the most seats, followed by PSOE. The monarchy and democracy appeared consolidated.
The new Cortes drafted a constitution, approved on October 31, 1978, and ratified by referendum on December 6, 1978. The government also addressed territorial organization, the economic crisis (Moncloa Pacts), tax reform, and another amnesty.
Suárez called new elections on March 1, 1979, and municipal elections on April 3, 1979. UCD won but without an absolute majority. Political life deteriorated, consensus waned, and tensions rose. Suárez faced challenges within his party and resigned on January 29, 1981.
During the investiture vote for Leopoldo Calvo Sotelo, a coup attempt occurred on February 23, led by Lieutenant Colonel Antonio Tejero. The King’s intervention was decisive in maintaining democracy. Calvo Sotelo was sworn in, and mass demonstrations supported democracy. His government pursued policies of agreement with the PSOE, including legalizing divorce and proposing entry into the EEC and NATO.
Calvo Sotelo called elections for October 28, 1982. UCD collapsed, and PSOE won a landslide victory, ending the transition period and ushering in an era of democratic consolidation.