Spain’s Transition to Modern Nation: Agriculture, Industry, and Social Change
Spain’s Transition to a Modern Nation in the 19th Century
Introduction
Throughout the 19th century, Spain underwent a complex transition from an empire to a modern nation with a liberal system of property rights. This transition has been viewed negatively by historians, who often highlight Spain’s dual character as both a modernizing country and a nation stuck in a prolonged pre-industrial phase. During this period, Spain remained predominantly agricultural.
1. Agriculture and Land Reform
Spanish agriculture in the 19th century exhibited a dual nature. For much of the century, it was characterized by:
- A lack of significant technological advancements.
- The persistence of subsistence crises similar to those experienced under the old regime.
However, there were also elements of modernization, including agricultural expansion stimulated by the introduction of a capitalist economy and the arrival of the railway in mid-century, which facilitated the articulation of the domestic market. This led to an increase in cultivated areas and the production of staple crops.
Liberal Land Reform
A key aspect of this period was the liberal revolution and the extension of private property rights to the countryside, eliminating traditional forms of feudal ownership. Measures implemented included:
- Legislation to liberalize agriculture.
- Ecclesiastical confiscation.
- Abolition of feudal domains.
- Confiscation of common lands.
Causes of Backwardness in Spanish Agriculture
- Shortage of capital.
- Late introduction of modern transportation, delaying the formation of a national market.
2. Industrialization and Transportation
From the 1840s, Spain began to experience industrial development, particularly in sectors typical of the Industrial Revolution. This process required three fundamental elements: the formation of sufficient capital, the introduction of technological innovations, and legislative changes.
The Textile Industry
The textile industry was primarily concentrated in Catalonia. Following a period of decline after the War of Independence and the emancipation of the American colonies, the industry experienced a resurgence during the reign of Isabella II due to several factors:
- State protectionism for the textile industry in Spain and its colonies.
- Population growth, leading to an expanding market.
- Technological innovations introduced by Catalan employers.
- Cheap cotton imports from the USA, enabling a significant increase in production.
- The emergence of railroads, which reduced transportation costs.
Catalan dominance in the textile industry transformed Barcelona and its surrounding regions into the leading industrial area in Spain.
Mining
Under the old regime, mines belonged to the Crown. The advent of the liberal regime brought about a degree of liberalization in the sector. The Mining Act of 1868 provided numerous incentives for mining companies. The main products exploited were:
- Coal – Asturias
- Iron – Vizcaya
- Copper – Huelva
- Lead – Cartagena
Steel
The steel industry emerged as a result of innovations that originated in England in the 18th century and subsequently spread to Europe. In Spain, steel production developed in Malaga, Asturias, and Vizcaya, with the latter becoming the second-largest producing region after Asturias.
The Railroad and the Development of the Internal Market
The railroad played a crucial role in stimulating economic growth across Europe. In Spain, the first railway projects date back to the end of the reign of Ferdinand VII, but significant development had to await the implementation of liberalism. Due to the weakness of the Spanish Treasury, railway construction was largely left in the hands of private companies. This situation changed during the Progressive Biennium, when a new railway law was enacted, favoring the opening of the economy to foreign investment. The new law established conditions that attracted foreign capital, including:
- Line concessions for 99 years.
- A guaranteed minimum interest rate of 6% for concessionaires.
- Free access to natural resources.
- Duty-free import of materials needed for construction.
Spain opted for a radial railway network centered on Madrid. Construction accelerated between 1855 and 1868.
3. Social and Demographic Changes
Population
The Spanish population increased between 1797 and 1860, but this growth remained lower than that of other European countries. The majority of the population continued to live in rural areas, although there was a modest increase in urbanization.
Society
The reign of Isabella II witnessed the emergence of a liberal bourgeois society, with the theoretical disappearance of the former privileged classes and the creation of a new society characterized by equality before the law. However, the former landowning nobility retained much of its economic power and vast estates. The upper middle class consisted of businessmen, bankers, high-ranking officials, and professionals with political influence. The middle class included professionals, traders, and administrative officials. The peasantry, which constituted the majority of the population, was divided into large landowners, medium landowners, small landowners, tenant farmers, and landless laborers. The proletariat encompassed artisans and domestic servants.
4. The Beginnings of the Labor Movement
The 1840s marked the beginning of an era of labor demands, including reduced working hours and improved wages. Mutual aid societies began to form during this period. In the 1850s and 1860s, the working class and progressives collaborated, and workers’ associations reappeared during the 1854 revolution. The Progressive Biennium witnessed the first general strike in Barcelona. Following the overthrow of Espartero, the proletariat recognized the need to politicize its struggle. During the 1868 revolution, the working class fought for the establishment of democracy. After the revolution’s triumph, freedom of association, press, and speech were restored. The International Workingmen’s Association (IWA) established contact with Spanish workers.
The First Restoration (1875-1898)
During the early years of the Restoration, under the leadership of Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, workers’ organizations were forced to operate in secrecy. The Restoration was characterized by indifference towards social issues, particularly evident in the neglect of public education.
The Socialist Current
Following the dissolution of the IWA, Karl Marx recommended the formation of Marxist parties. On May 2, 1879, the Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party (PSOE) was founded in secrecy, led by Pablo Iglesias. In 1881, taking advantage of a new law on associations passed by the government of Práxedes Mateo Sagasta, the PSOE officially registered. In 1886, the party began publishing the daily newspaper “El Socialista,” and in 1888, the General Union of Workers (UGT) was founded. That same year, the PSOE held its first congress. In 1910, Pablo Iglesias became the first socialist deputy in the Spanish parliament.
The Anarchist Current
Spain, with its predominantly rural population, had strong anarchist roots. In contrast to the socialists’ emphasis on political participation, anarchists advocated for direct industrial action through strikes. In 1874, a harsh crackdown forced the anarchist movement underground. In Andalusia, in 1883, the police announced the discovery of a secret society called the “Black Hand,” which allegedly planned to exterminate landowners. In the 1890s, anarchists in Barcelona favored direct action, targeting the bourgeoisie and the political establishment.