Spain’s Tumultuous 19th Century: Corruption, Revolution, and Political Shifts
The spread of administrative corruption and marginalization of progressives led moderates to promote the creation of the Constitution of 1845. This constitution strengthened conservative elements by defending Catholicism as the official religion, limiting freedom of the press, sharing sovereignty between the courts and the king, and establishing a bicameral legislature (Senate and Congress) with a restricted suffrage. Measures were taken to control provincial and local governments. The post of civil governor was created in the provinces, and the government appointed mayors and provincial governors. The national militia was abolished and replaced by the Civil Guard. The state allocated part of the budget to meet church expenses.
The Democratic Party advocated for a democratic liberalism based on universal male suffrage, unicameral courts, religious freedom, and state intervention in industrial relations.
The Progressive Biennium (1854-1856)
The revolution of 1854 was triggered by a pronouncement organized by General O’Donnell’s troops, aiming to overthrow the government. The uprising began in Vicálvaro. To appeal to progressives and the civilian population, the Manifiesto de Manzanares was proclaimed, and the uprising spread to large cities. Following these events, Elizabeth II commissioned General Espartero to form a new government, while O’Donnell remained leader of the moderate left wing. During these two years, the principles and operation of the liberal state remained largely unchanged. Reforms included the restoration of laws and institutions, the drafting of a constitution that was never enacted, and the culmination of economic reorganization.
During the Biennium, conflicts erupted in various industries, coupled with subsistence riots, leading to a government crisis. The political landscape alternated between moderates and the Liberal Union. The moderates were led by Narváez, while the Liberal Union was a new party created and led by O’Donnell, advocating for a pragmatic liberalism.
The Liberal Union’s Emphasis
The Liberal Union emphasized economic progress as the ultimate goal of politics, increasing public works such as railways and the Canal de Isabel II. It pursued a prestigious foreign policy aimed at restoring Spain’s international role and potential, focusing on a region of southwestern Morocco. The internal policy was based on moderate principles of the Constitution of 1845, but the attempt to achieve a peaceful alternation of power among the various liberal groups failed again. Progressives began to collaborate with Democrats.
Conspiracies encouraged by liberals and Democrats targeted the government and the queen. After the deaths of O’Donnell and Narváez, who were the main supporters of the queen, unionists acceded to the agreement. The economic recession of 1866-1868 increased discontent, triggering the revolution.
The Democratic Sexennium (1868-1874)
The 1868 revolution began with a military coup led by Generals Prim and Serrano, who proposed an interim government and universal suffrage while criticizing the Bourbons. This pronouncement had popular support and was led by Democrats who organized juntas revolucionarias. Queen Elizabeth II’s troops were defeated, and she fled to France.
The provisional government formed a Constituent Assembly, headed by Serrano and composed of progressives. The dual power structure (juntas and government) favored the government, which in turn cut much of the democratic program. The constituents and government called elections in 1869. The resulting courts were composed of Carlists (extreme right and anti-democrats), moderates who wanted the return of the Bourbons and the Constitution of 1845 (also called alfonsinos, led by Cánovas del Castillo), and supporters of the government who advocated for a constitutional monarchy and democracy, who won the elections.