Spain’s Tumultuous 20th Century: Dictatorship, Republic, and Civil War
Primo de Rivera
Among the events of this period are the following:
- General Primo de Rivera rose up, ostensibly to save the country, but in reality, it was to save the dying monarchy of Alfonso XIII.
- The goal of the dictatorship for the ruling class was to clean up the mess left by previous governments and give a new image to the country.
- The dictatorship had significant achievements in the economy. It tried to create a state-controlled economic sector by merging public and private capital into a single facility. It produced an ambitious plan to build roads, bridges, ports, waterworks, and railways, which achieved a considerable increase in demand for building materials. Consequently, the industry received a boost, and unemployment was eliminated. This policy led to a significant expansion of industrial production and mining. However, the plan of public works, subsidies to the railroad company, and the nationalization of oil (CAMPSA, a leasing company’s monopoly oil corporation) all led to the dictatorship’s financial disaster. The devaluation of the peseta aggravated the country’s economy, which, together with the state’s financial crisis, led to the resignation of the dictator, abandoned by all.
- In 1930, all anti-monarchist parties signed the Pact of San Sebastian to overthrow the monarchy and proclaim a republic.
- The weakened monarchy called elections, which the opposition regarded as a true referendum between monarchy and republic. They took place on April 14, 1931, with Republican forces succeeding in the provincial capitals and major cities. However, the monarchy had a greater number of votes in the rural world, thanks to the chieftaincy. The King could no longer count on any support, and the Second Republic was proclaimed, with a provisional government headed by Alcalá Zamora.
Second Republic
With the proclamation of the Second Republic, the bourgeois liberal revolution ended, and a period of profound political and social reforms began, which was characterized by:
- The promulgation of the Constitution of 1931. Spain was defined as a democratic republic of workers of all kinds, organized in a system of freedom and justice. The president was elected for six years, being responsible for its management before the courts, arranged in a single chamber, the Congress of Deputies, which was elected by universal suffrage. The Constitution guaranteed the separation of powers and established a security court charged with resolving violations against the constitution and settling disputes between central and autonomous regions. It proclaimed the equality of all before the law, collecting a broad statement of individual rights. While recognizing private property, it admitted the possibility of expropriation, after compensation, in the national interest. Regarding the issue of religion, it provided for the separation of church and state, suppressing religious teaching and the remuneration of the clergy and the Jesuits.
- The Republic of the Left (1931-1933). At this stage, a profound agrarian reform was rushed, trying to create a class of small owners and end landlordism. The statute for Catalonia was passed, which became an autonomous regional government. The feat had to face the discontent of large segments of Catholics and the military. The serious events of the uprising of Casas Viejas and Sanjurjo forced the resignation of Azaña.
- The Republic of the Right (1933-1936). The following governments slowed down the reforms undertaken by Azaña, but in October 1934, left-wing political forces unleashed a revolutionary movement affecting Asturias and Catalonia, which was repressed by the government.
- The Popular Front government. Leftist political forces, grouped in a Popular Front, won the elections in 1936, but continued fighting between the right (CEDA of Gil Robles and the Spanish Falange of Jose Antonio) and the left (Socialists, UGT, CNT-FAI, and Communists) were replaced by Franco’s military uprising of July 1936.
Spanish Civil War
Between July 1936 and April 1939, Spain experienced one of the most tragic episodes in its history. What initially was a military uprising became a bloody war, which was a huge demographic, economic, and cultural setback, with the disappearance of most of the intellectual figures and leaders in general. The war had the following characteristics:
- The start of the war: On July 7, 1936, the garrison revolted in Africa, and within days, it extended throughout Spain. The Republic secured its control in the northern industrial centers, in Madrid, and in Catalonia. The uprising was supported by the Soviet Union and the International Brigades. The rebels, instead of Franco, had the invaluable help of Germany and Italy.
- Evolution of fronts:
- During the first months of the war, Franco aimed to take the city, but the capital resisted, making attacks futile.
- On the northern front, the fighting took on extraordinary harshness, but by 1937, Franco’s troops gained control of the entire peninsular front.
- Franco’s offensive to the Mediterranean divided Republican territory into two areas in 1938. The Battle of the Ebro is characteristic, in which both sides suffered heavy losses.
- In January 1939, Republican resistance collapsed in Catalonia, and in March of the same year, Madrid surrendered, ending the war on April 1.
- Domestic politics on both sides: The lack of organization was a serious problem in the Republican zone, with the support received from abroad being much less than that received by Franco. Moreover, the order and control in the Franco area and the great support from abroad (Italy and Germany) were the foundations for the triumph of the rebels.
- The consequences of the civil war were these:
- A million dead and missing, not counting prisoners of war and emigrants, which had negative effects on birth rates.
- A decrease in the workforce.
- A loss of more than 500 metric tons of gold.
- War spending worth 500 billion pesetas.
- Destruction of more than 10% of the country’s habitable assets.
- Serious damage to transport systems, reduction of livestock and arable land.
- The income level of the Spanish sank more than 30%, in addition to worsening the imbalance in income distribution.