Spain’s Tumultuous Six Years: 1868-1874
The Provisional Government of Serrano and Prim
The Provisional Government initially faced the issue of duality of power between the ruling government and the Boards. While the Boards’ program was more radical, both agreed on universal suffrage, freedom of the press, freedom of trade, and some social demands. In early October, the Provisional Government was formed, headed by Serrano with Prim as second. The government began implementing democratic reforms:
- Tax reform: Creation of the peseta, new mining legislation, introduction of free trade, expulsion of the Jesuits, and the dissolution of convents.
- Transformation of political life: Introduction of universal male suffrage and elections to constituent Cortes to draft the 1869 Constitution, establishing a democratic monarchy with recognized rights, separation of powers, a bicameral parliamentary system, freedom of religion, and some decentralization.
After the Constitution was drafted, a temporary regency was established under Serrano, but Prim held significant political influence. Throughout 1870, profound legal changes occurred, including new provisions for the judiciary, penal code, civil registration, civil marriage, and public policy, although illegal practices persisted.
Search for a New Monarch
Finding a Catholic liberal monarch proved challenging. Candidates like the Duke of Montpensier, Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern, and Ferdinand of Coburg were considered but discarded. Eventually, Amadeo, Duke of Aosta from the Savoy family, was chosen.
In 1870, Parliament elected Amadeo as king, but only 191 out of 311 deputies voted for him. The new monarchy lacked sufficient political support, and Prim’s assassination further weakened it.
The Democratic Monarchy of Amadeo
Amadeo arrived in Spain to a cold reception in Madrid. Despite his desire to be a good and democratic constitutional monarch, he faced numerous difficulties and opposition.
The government under Serrano was marked by instability. The ruling coalition rapidly disintegrated due to progressive division and a climate of political instability. Various political and social forces opposed the monarchy:
- The clergy, who continued to clash with the state.
- The nobility and landed aristocracy, who feared republican pressure on private property. The bourgeoisie, who grew discontent with free-trade measures and sympathized with the Alfonsists.
- Open opposition from Carlists and Republicans.
The Carlist War erupted in 1872, particularly affecting the Basque Country and parts of Catalonia. Republicans, divided into different factions, led revolutionary revolts in Malaga, Madrid, and El Ferrol.
Additionally, the uprising in Cuba and the growing labor movement added to the turmoil.
In February 1873, Amadeo I abdicated, citing the continuous civil strife during his two-year reign. Consequently, the Republic was proclaimed.
The First Republic (1873-1874)
Despite the Constitution’s prohibition, the House and Senate convened as a National Assembly and proclaimed a federal republic, electing Estanislao Figueras as Chairman of the Executive. The Republic was based on the 1869 Constitution and aimed to fulfill the ideals of the revolutionary masses.
The First Republic faced instability from the outset:
- It was proclaimed by a parliament where Republicans were in the minority.
- It came unexpectedly.
- It suffered from ideological and political divisions.
- It lacked a single formulation.
- It faced civil unrest, insurrection, cantonal rebellion, and Carlist uprisings, leading to near-total chaos.
- It encountered hostility from conservative forces.
A federal constitutional project of 1873 was drafted but never approved. It proposed a nation composed of seventeen states, including overseas provinces.
Evolution of the Republic
Estanislao Figueras‘s government abolished taxes, leading to further anarchy and his resignation. The Cantonal movement emerged, with independent cantons like Cartagena.
Pi i Margall succeeded Figueras but failed to improve the situation. Nicolás Salmerón attempted to consolidate the Republic but resigned over signing a death sentence.
Emilio Castelar led a conservative Republic, focusing on suppressing social revolts. In 1874, General Pavia dissolved parliament after Castelar’s defeat. General Serrano assumed premiership, pursuing a policy of order.
Meanwhile, monarchist forces gained ground. The manifesto of Sandhurst, written by Canovas del Castillo, endorsed Alfonso XII. General Martinez Campos proclaimed Alfonso XII king in Sagunto, ending the First Republic and the possibility of a democratic revolution stemming from 1868.