Spain’s Turbulent 19th Century: From Civil War to Republic
Isabella II’s Reign and the Rise of Liberalism
Isabel’s mother, Maria Christina, served as regent and sought the support of the Liberals to secure her daughter’s throne. This alliance ignited a civil war (1833-1840) between the absolutist Carlists and the liberal Isabellines. The Carlists, representing the agrarian nobility, clergy, and peasantry of northeastern Spain, defended the Old Regime. The Isabellines, comprised of the bourgeoisie, peasantry, and urban classes of the center and south of the peninsula, championed a constitutional monarchy, freedom of ownership, and social mobility. The Liberal Party ultimately won, and the Convention of Bergara ended the war.
The Liberal Era and its Challenges
Espartero initially became governor but later resigned, leading Parliament to proclaim Elizabeth II queen. Liberal progressives, led by Mendizabal, aimed to dismantle the Old Regime entirely and introduce a liberal system. This involved dissolving the manorial system, separating ownership, and seizing clergy assets, thus liberalizing landed property. They enacted the Constitution of 1837, establishing a parliamentary monarchy.
Moderate liberals favored more limited, conservative reforms. They imposed censitary suffrage, maintained significant army influence, and centralized the administration. The Constitution of 1845 reflected these views, with restricted suffrage and shared sovereignty between Parliament and the King. This period also saw economic growth, the creation of the Criminal Code, and the establishment of the Civil Guard.
Political Instability and the 1868 Revolution
A military ruling in 1854, led by General O’Donnell, aimed to restore constitutional principles and implement economic reforms. New political groups emerged: Democrats, advocating for universal male suffrage, and Republicans, who sought the abolition of the monarchy. From 1866, a severe economic crisis, combined with the political wear of the Elizabethan regime, triggered a revolution against the monarchy.
The movement, spearheaded by Prim and Serrano, erupted in 1868 with Brigadier Topete’s insurgency in the Bay of Cadiz. A provisional government was formed, initiating a reform program that recognized fundamental rights, universal male suffrage, educational reform, and the democratization of local councils. The Constitution of 1869, with its democratic nature, was passed.
The Short-Lived Republic and the Restoration
The 1869 Constitution established a monarchy, and Amadeus of Savoy was chosen as king. However, he faced opposition from moderates, the church, and Carlists. Many Democrats instigated insurrections, and some Republicans advocated for a republic. The new king also had to contend with armed conflicts: an insurgency in Cuba and a new Carlist guerrilla war.
The republic, born with limited chances of success, was initially received with enthusiasm by the popular sectors. It had a broad program of social reform and was organized federally for the first time. However, it faced numerous challenges, including the escalating wars. In January 1874, General Pavia’s coup dissolved the courts, and General Serrano took over. He attempted to establish a republic but ultimately paved the way for the return of the monarchy.
The Restoration and its Consequences
Two major parties emerged:
- Conservative Party: Led by Canovas, it favored political paralysis, the defense of the church, and social order.
- Liberal Party: Headed by Práxedes Mateo Sagasta, it leaned towards more democratic, secular, and social reforms.
The Constitution of 1876, with its moderate character, fostered stability. Conservatives and liberals agreed to alternate in power (Pacific Turn) and control Spanish political life.
In Catalonia, the Renaissance spurred the emergence of political organizations demanding autonomy. In the Basque Country, a protest movement culminated in the creation of the Basque Nationalist Party (1894). In Galicia, the movement had limited political impact.
The 1898 Disaster and Regenerationism
In 1898, the U.S. declared war on Spain. The defeat caused widespread frustration in Spanish society and among the political class. This fostered a strong sense of pessimism and gave rise to regenerationist movements, which demanded genuine democratization of the state and an end to *caciquismo* (political bossism) and corruption.