Spain’s Turbulent Sexenio: Regency, Republic & Cuba
The Regency of Serrano (1869-1871)
The Constitution of 1869
A moderately sized text with 112 articles, it was influenced by the Belgian Constitution of 1831 and the U.S. Constitution of 1787. Its preamble affirmed national sovereignty originating from the people (soberanía nacional) and proclaimed the separation of powers.
Key aspects included:
- Regulation of all individual rights.
- Establishment of universal male suffrage.
- Creation of a bicameral system (two legislative chambers).
- Royal powers similar to those granted in previous constitutions.
Challenges During the Regency
Adopting a monarchical form of government provoked strong opposition from Republicans. This led to the appointment of General Serrano as Regent, with General Prim taking the premiership.
The Regency faced numerous internal and external problems:
- A colonial war (specifically the Ten Years’ War in Cuba).
- Active opposition from Carlists and Alfonsinos (supporters of the previous Bourbon dynasty).
- Constant pressure and harassment from Republicans.
- Growing discontent among the working class.
This period was plagued by social unrest and revolutionary movements. Amidst this turmoil, the Federal Pact of Tortosa was signed in May 1869, uniting federal Republican party committees from regions including the former Crown of Aragon, Extremadura, Andalusia, Galicia, Asturias, and Castile and León. This initiative aimed to establish a federal republic and culminated in the signing of a National Pact. Prim suppressed the resulting federalist uprisings and assumed special powers to maintain public order. The government also had to contend with widespread banditry.
The Search for a New Monarch
Adding to the aforementioned problems was the crucial task of selecting a new king for the restored monarchy. After considering several candidates, Amadeo of Savoy (from the Italian House of Aosta) was eventually chosen. Prim played a key role in facilitating the acceptance and proclamation of the new king.
Social Issues and the Cuban War
The Social Question: Rise of the Labor Movement
During the Sexenio Democrático (Democratic Six Years, 1868-1874), the Spanish labor movement began to take shape. This was driven by economic modernization, the development of industrial capitalism, and the influence of workers’ struggles in other countries. Workers started to be influenced by anarchist and socialist ideologies, primarily spread through the First International (AIT – International Workingmen’s Association).
Republicans, particularly federalists, shared some ideas with the labor movement, such as rejecting the centralized state. The political freedom achieved with the 1868 Revolution was not matched by significant social advancements, partly due to intense agitation among the masses demanding change. A shared faith in science and progress among anarchists and Republicans contributed to the creation of the Spanish Regional Federation of the AIT.
The Ten Years’ War in Cuba (1868-1878)
Another major challenge facing Spanish rulers was the long war in Cuba. Cuba’s economy was closely tied to the U.S., and U.S. interest in the island grew significantly. The independence movement, admired by many within Cuba, was initiated by Carlos Manuel de Céspedes with the Grito de Yara (Cry of Yara) in October 1868.
The significant political instability and organizational problems within the Spanish government inadvertently aided the independence movement. The eastern part of the island became the main theater of operations. The most intense phase of the war occurred later, during the Bourbon Restoration period, concluding with the signing of the Peace of Zanjón in 1878.
International pressure, particularly from France, the UK, and the U.S., compelled Spain to adopt the Moret Law in 1870. This law granted freedom to children born to enslaved mothers (‘freedom of wombs’), minors, the elderly, and those enslaved persons who fought with the Spanish army. However, the institution of slavery itself persisted on the island until its final abolition in 1886.