Spain’s Turmoil: From Old Regime Crisis to Liberal Reforms (1788-1814)
The Crisis of the Old Regime
Top of the Crisis (1788-1808)
Passed during the reign of Charles IV. The French Revolution promoted a conservative backlash in an isolated Spain. In 1793, King Louis XVI of France was executed, leading to the War of the Pyrenees, where Spain failed. In 1796, Spain allied with France against England, but the Spanish Armada was defeated at Cape St. Vincent, losing colonial trade. In 1800, Napoleon sought an alliance against Portugal, a British ally, provoking the War of the Oranges. Godoy secured a commitment that no British ships would arrive in Portugal. In 1805, the Battle of Trafalgar resulted in Spain losing its naval power.
Crisis Situation After 1808
Spain faced a severe economic crisis: successive wars, bad harvests, soaring prices, and widespread hunger. Trade with the colonies was disrupted, and the state was bankrupt. Social discontent grew against the King and Godoy due to military defeats and noble opposition. Prince Ferdinand, supported by nobles and clergy, conspired against the king but failed and was pardoned. The Treaty of Fontainebleau (1807) allowed Napoleon’s army to cross Spain to subdue Portugal. However, Napoleon kept his army in Spain, leading to the Mutiny of Aranjuez (March 1808), where Ferdinand’s supporters seized the palace, deposing Godoy and forcing Charles IV to abdicate.
Independence War – Explosion
Napoleon seized power in Spain, causing the Abdications of Bayonne. Ferdinand VII abdicated in favor of his father, Charles IV, who then ceded the throne to Napoleon’s brother, Joseph. The Uprising of May 2 in Madrid saw a spontaneous revolt against the French, easily crushed by the garrison. Murat, the French authority, ordered the shootings of rebels on Principe Pio hill on May 3. Despite this, popular resistance spread across Spain, unlike the privileged classes. The mayor of Móstoles called the people to arms.
War (1808-1813)
In 1808, France attempted to control resistance outbreaks. On July 19, 1808, the French army was defeated at Bailén, forcing Joseph I to leave Madrid, and the Duke of Wellington landed in Lisbon. Napoleon intervened, taking Burgos and occupying Madrid (December 4). He respected property and Catholicism, implementing economic and social reforms to gain Spanish support and expelled the British from Galicia. Guerrilla warfare persisted from 1809 to 1811. The war’s end came between 1811 and 1813. Wellington’s victories liberated Portugal and Badajoz. Napoleon’s 1812 Russian campaign forced him to withdraw troops from Spain. In 1812, Wellington’s forces won the Battle of Salamanca (Arapiles), opening the way to Madrid. In June 1813, after the Battle of Vitoria, Joseph I fled Spain. The Treaty of Valençay (December 11) marked Ferdinand VII’s return.
Spain without the Bourbons
Joseph I attempted to govern Spain with the Royal Charter of Bayonne, a granted charter. It abolished seigneurial jurisdiction, eliminated internal customs, dissolved the Inquisition, and expropriated convent properties. He had the support of pro-French elements, but most of the country rejected him. Enlightened bourgeois, nobles, and clergy assumed national sovereignty, forming the Junta Central in December 1808 as a resistance government. It directed the war and initiated reforms through the Cortes of Cadiz.
Composition of the Cortes of Cadiz
The Cortes were mainly composed of urban middle classes. Liberalism predominated, advocating social and political reforms and a free political regime to defend bourgeois interests. Three ideological groups emerged: Absolutists, Jovellanists (moderates, enlightened despots, or bourgeois seeking gradual change), and Revolutionaries (advocating national sovereignty and the abolition of privileges).
Legislative Measures of the Cortes of Cadiz
- Elimination of the jurisdictional regime of lordships (6/7/1811), establishing legal equality and reducing farmers’ financial burdens.
- Extinction of the Mesta and Mayorazgo (which limited property rights).
- Abolition of guilds (13/9/1813), promoting economic liberalism, free labor, production, trade, and the elimination of internal tariffs.
- Freedom of the press (10/11/1810).
- Suppression of the Inquisition (22/2/1813) and attempts to reduce monasteries.
- Disentailment measures to address the debt problem, expropriating lands from Francophiles, municipalities, the Inquisition, and Military Orders.
These reforms were curtailed with Ferdinand VII’s return.
Cortes of Cadiz – End of the Old Regime – New Society
Spain transitioned from a stratified society to a class-based society without privileges, with legal equality and social mobility. The abolition of the Inquisition and the feudal system diminished the power of the clergy and nobility, crumbling the foundations of estate society. The bourgeoisie gained access to senior administrative and military positions. Economically, guilds and primogeniture were abolished, freeing up land. Unified legal and judicial jurisdictions were established. The result was a society free of classes, with freedom to exploit land, engage in commerce, make private contracts, and trade. Despite these changes, some noble privileges persisted.