Spain’s Turmoil: Pavia’s Coup to the 1868 Revolution
Pavía’s Coup and Serrano’s Republic (1874)
The third phase of the First Spanish Republic began with a coup led by General Pavía, who invaded the Cortes (courts) to establish a civil government under military guard.
Serrano Assumes Power
General Serrano assumed power, dissolving the Cortes. He was supported by the army and the Alfonsino party, which advocated for a presidential republic. Power became concentrated in the figure of the President.
Authoritarian Rule and Propaganda
Monarchist propaganda gained prestige, portraying the Republic as synonymous with disorder and national disintegration. Serrano’s governments became increasingly authoritarian.
Repression and Instability
Worker’s associations were dissolved under the pretext of acting against public security, territorial integrity, and state power. A state of siege was declared throughout the country. The Canton of Cartagena was subjugated. The conflict against the Carlists intensified, notably with the siege of Bilbao.
Economic Measures
The public deficit worsened, leading to measures such as higher taxes and the forfeiture of Carlist assets.
Unresolved Republican Problems
The Republican governments failed to solve persistent problems, including:
- Cantonalist sublevation
- Social and anarchist unrest
- The Carlist insurrection
Crisis and Fall of Isabella II’s Monarchy
Political Crisis and Repression
Before the Republic, under Queen Isabella II, figures like O’Donnell and Narváez oversaw strong political repression. Military forces brutally suppressed any uprising or demands for political reform. The Cortes were closed, and governance was often by decree.
Failure of Conservatism
A crisis brewed within Spanish conservatism. In power since 1845, they had failed to solve the country’s problems, placing the Crown in a difficult situation.
Opposition Grows
Political repression and the lack of legal means to access power alienated the Progressives from Isabel II. They ceased cooperation and began conspiring, culminating in the Pact of Ostend, which aimed to end both conservatism and Isabel II’s reign.
Loss of Support for Isabel II
Isabel II lost the support of the Progressives, who refused to participate in fraudulent elections. Democrats joined the opposition. Debates arose among the urban classes and Democrats regarding the future: a monarchy with universal suffrage or a republic.
Key Event: Revolt of San Gil Barracks
The revolt of the sergeants at the San Gil barracks highlighted the growing instability.
Economic Crisis Components
A severe economic crisis contributed to the monarchy’s downfall:
Financial Crisis
The stock market declined, and railway securities became unprofitable investments after the intensive construction period ended, as operating the lines proved less profitable than anticipated.
Industrial Crisis
The Catalan textile industry suffered due to the American Civil War, which interrupted US exports and trade of raw cotton. Shortages led to higher raw material prices. Workshops and factories closed, putting workers out on the street.
Subsistence Crisis
Crop failures in the agricultural sector led to wheat shortages and price hikes, resulting in hunger and social violence.
Social Crisis
Rising unemployment became widespread. The bourgeoisie grew distant from the moderate regime and the Crown.
Pact of Ostend (August 1866)
Progressives, Democrats, and Republicans signed the Pact of Ostend. Following O’Donnell’s death, the Liberal Union also joined the pact.
The Glorious Revolution (1868)
The Uprising
In 1868, the revolution began with an uprising in Cádiz led by Admiral Topete, aided by Generals Prim and Serrano. This military conspiracy had been prepared by revolutionary juntas operating in parallel.
Context and Causes
The revolution was the culmination of the crisis within the moderate governments and the precarious position of Isabel II, stemming from the interconnected social, economic, and political crises.
Revolutionary Objectives
The objectives of the revolution were to:
- Change the government
- Democratize the political system through universal suffrage
- Establish national sovereignty
- Implement a system of broad liberties
- Develop capitalism