Spain’s War of Independence (1808-1814)
The Crisis of the Old Regime in Spain (1808)
The Crisis of 1808: The War of Independence and the Beginnings of Liberal Revolution
Features of Charles IV’s Reign (1788-1808)
A Faltering Government
Charles IV attempted to continue the reform policies of his father, Charles III. However, his reign marked the beginning of the crisis of the ancien régime, characterized by a stratified society and absolute monarchy. Between 1792 and 1808, Manuel Godoy’s control over the monarchy undermined the image of the rulers, both domestically and internationally.
The Influence of the French Revolution
Before the French Revolution (1789), Minister Floridablanca attempted to suppress revolutionary ideology by reinforcing the Inquisition and persecuting sympathizers. From 1793-1795, Spain’s war against revolutionary France resulted in a resounding defeat for the Spanish army.
Growing Dependence on France
Godoy aligned Spain with France through the Treaty of San Ildefonso (1796 and 1800) and the Treaty of Fontainebleau (1807). This made Spain a French satellite, providing financial and naval resources. The British blockade (1796) severely damaged Spanish trade and communication with the Americas. The Battle of Trafalgar (1805) further weakened Spain’s naval power, increasing dependence on France and Godoy’s unpopularity.
Napoleon planned to use Spain as a route to invade Portugal, stationing troops in strategic locations. Godoy anticipated a move to the Algarve in Portugal.
Serious Problems of the State Treasury
Existing debts, compounded by the costs of wars against Britain (1796-1808), brought the crown near bankruptcy. The British blockade disrupted vital resources from the Americas. The government issued more bonds, causing their value to plummet. A Sinking Fund (1798) and the seizure of church properties failed to improve the treasury’s situation.
Great Unrest
Epidemics, bread riots, and inflation exacerbated by the British blockade hit the lower classes hardest. Revolts against aristocratic privilege and tithes increased, worsened by the disruption of church charities due to confiscations.
The Crisis of 1808: The War of Independence
Growing Political Opposition
Godoy’s policies fueled opposition. The left, favoring constitutional limitations on royal power, remained weak. The right, comprising marginalized nobles, clergy, and some intellectuals, was led by the Prince of Asturias, Ferdinand. The Escorial plot (1807) failed, but the Aranjuez plot (March 1808) succeeded.
Amidst French troop movements, Godoy planned to relocate the royal family to Andalusia and then to America. This sparked riots in Aranjuez, leading to Godoy’s imprisonment and Charles IV’s abdication in favor of Ferdinand VII. Napoleon’s troops entered Madrid, and Ferdinand confirmed his alliance with France.
The Aranjuez events exposed the monarchy’s decay. Napoleon’s plans shifted from involving Spain in his campaign against Portugal and Britain to annexing Spain, and finally, after the March events, to installing a satellite monarchy under his family.
This plan faced unexpected armed resistance, igniting the War of Independence (1808-1814).
The Outbreak of War
Napoleon summoned Charles IV, Ferdinand VII, and Godoy to Bayonne, where the kings relinquished the crown to Joseph I, Napoleon’s brother. Clashes between the populace and French troops in Madrid led to the popular uprising of May 2, 1808. The ensuing repression fueled a general uprising across the peninsula.
The Nature of the War
The war was a multifaceted conflict: an international struggle, a civil war, and a political crisis.
Part of the larger Napoleonic Wars (1792-1815), the conflict involved Portugal, Britain, and France. Britain, allied with Portugal, used Portugal as a base against the French and provided crucial support to Spanish insurgents, particularly in Cadiz.
The war also became a civil war. Napoleon’s troops brought revolutionary ideas that resonated with some intellectuals (afrancesados). Opponents, including some intellectuals like Jovellanos, formed armed groups, supported by nobles and clergy defending Bourbon legitimacy and church integrity, or simply their own privileges.
The absence of a legitimate monarch created a power vacuum and a political crisis. Collaborating administrations improvised alternative power structures, leading to a revolutionary process culminating in the Cortes of Cadiz and the Constitution of 1812.
Stages of the War
- May-October 1808: Initial French setbacks, including defeat at Bailen (July 1808) and the surrender of French troops in Portugal to the British.
- October 1808-July 1812: French military hegemony, but with significant resistance pockets. Napoleon’s intervention restored Joseph Bonaparte to Madrid, but Lisbon and Cadiz remained centers of resistance. Guerrilla warfare, led by figures like El Empecinado, Father Murphy, and Francisco Espoz y Mina, significantly hampered French operations.
- July 1812-1814: Allied offensive led by the Duke of Wellington, culminating in French expulsion after victories at Arapiles (1812), Vitoria (1813), and San Marcial (1813). The Treaty of Valençay (December 1813) recognized Ferdinand VII as King of Spain.