Spanish Agriculture: Evolution and Challenges
Applications and Uses of Land
The agricultural sector in Spain has been declining since the beginning of the century in various aspects (economic, demographic, etc.). However, production has increased due to improved yields and productivity. Significant changes include the dramatic expansion of irrigation, a reduction in cereal cultivation (wheat), and high growth of fodder, industrial crops, and fruit trees. As a result, the Spanish agricultural economy is shifting from arable farming towards livestock.
The distribution of agricultural/livestock production is uneven across Spain. We find diverse agricultural landscapes, ranging from large areas of fallow cereal crops to intensive irrigated orchard areas in the Levante region.
Importance of Irrigation
Irrigation’s importance is not only spatial but also economic. Irrigated crops represent intensive agriculture, generating employment and high yields. Benefits include increased yields and farmer income. However, excessive water use can conflict with domestic, industrial, and tourism demands.
Rainfed Agriculture
Rainfed agriculture is linked to extensive farming, sometimes still practicing fallow arable. Dryland crops include:
- Cereals (wheat, barley, oats, etc.) often rotated with legumes (garbanzo beans, lima beans, etc.) due to their nitrogen-fixing properties.
- Oilseeds (soybean or sunflower oil) and flax, with cereals predominating.
- Olive trees and vineyards, forming the Mediterranean trilogy.
Legumes are declining due to low yields and difficulties with mechanization and herbicide use. Sunflower production, primarily for oil, grew significantly after Spain joined the EU due to subsidies. However, with reduced subsidies, it’s experiencing a slight decline.
Tree crops, especially olives, are prominent, followed by almonds, hazelnuts, figs, etc. Almonds are mainly concentrated in eastern Andalusia, Murcia, the Balearic Islands, and Catalonia.
Vineyard Irrigation
Irrigation supplements rainfall for crops. Irrigated agriculture is intensive, mechanized, uses chemical fertilizers, employs new crops and farming techniques, and generates high returns. We can distinguish between extensive and intensive irrigation.
Extensive irrigation supplements water for fruit set and yield increase, applied to the same dryland crops, providing a single annual harvest.
Intensive irrigation is practiced in orchards on the Levantine coast, Canary Islands, and fruit districts of the Ebro, Tajo, Guadiana, and Guadalquivir rivers. It involves changes in farming techniques, including drip irrigation with computerized distribution, high fertilizer use, and greater crop diversification. This is prevalent in Andalusia, Murcia, and Valencia, with regional specialization: citrus in Valencia and Murcia (interior), vegetables (lettuce, tomatoes, artichokes, etc.) on the Murcian coast, and fruit trees in the region’s interior valleys (peppers, zucchini, cucumbers, etc.).
Intensive vs. Extensive Cultivation
- Intensive cultivation is seasonal, while extensive is not.
- Intensive farming can yield 3 to 4 times more than extensive farming.
Fallow* is the practice of letting land rest after harvest. It involves activities like plowing to prepare the ground for autumn water absorption and weed control. Fallow land represents extensive farming.
Some Crops: Evolution and Distribution
Cereals and Legumes
Cereals, along with olives and vines, occupy over 55% of cultivated land. Production has increased due to seed selection, fertilizers, and irrigation. Main cereals include corn, rice (water-intensive), wheat, barley (dryland cereals grown inland), and legumes.
Vineyards and Olive Groves
Vineyard production is mainly for wine. Yields are low as they often occupy unsuitable land. Olive groves are mostly for oil production, boosted by EU subsidies.
Fruit Trees
Fruit trees have grown significantly, driven by export demand and rising living standards. Citrus fruits lead Spanish exports. Almonds are the largest rainfed fruit crop. Other fruits (pear, apple, peach, cherry, fig, banana, etc.) cover a similar area to citrus.
Vegetables and Tubers
They occupy a small area. Vegetables are gaining importance, while tubers are not. Crops are widespread, with specializations like asparagus in Navarra and La Rioja, melon in Ciudad Real and Toledo, and tomatoes in Almeria, Murcia, and Badajoz. These are for export and subject to price fluctuations.
Industrial Crops
Industrial crops require processing before consumption (sugar, textiles, oil, spices, etc.). Sunflower is the most important, grown on fallow land and benefiting from reduced EU subsidies. Sugar beet is second. Cotton and tobacco are declining.
Forage Crops
Forage crops are for livestock feed.
Spatial Factors of Production
Agricultural activity relies on the natural environment for profitable and competitive production. Key physical aspects are altitude, relief, soil, and climate.
Relief and Altitude
Spain’s high average altitude is a significant physical feature.
Soil
Soil formation depends on the underlying bedrock and various physical, chemical, and biological processes. In dry Iberia (Mediterranean Spain), soil types depend on the substrate:
- Limestone substrates: Basic soils, including red soils (Ciudad Real and Badajoz) rich in minerals like iron, suitable for agriculture, and subdesert gray soils.
- Silicon substrates: Poor, acidic brown soils with little humus, unsuitable for agriculture.
In wet Iberia (Atlantic Spain), evolved soils are influenced by climate and vegetation:
- Brown siliceous soils (western half): Acidic and unsuitable for agriculture.
- Brown soils and fusca soils (eastern half): More suitable for agriculture.
Climate
Climate is crucial, affecting temperature, precipitation, fog, and sunlight. Spain has Atlantic, warm Mediterranean, and cold Mediterranean climate domains.
Human Factors
Socioeconomic Factors
Land Ownership
Land ownership is dominated by large estates and smallholdings, with a shortage of medium-sized holdings. Large estates are found in Andalusia, Aragon, Extremadura, Salamanca, and parts of the southern Submeseta.
Farm Tenure
Tenure is the relationship between landowner and farmer. Direct operation is when the farmer owns the land. Indirect operation involves different owner and farmer:
- Sharecropping: Declining system where the owner provides resources, and the farmer provides labor.
- Lease: Growing system where the owner rents the land to the farmer.
The number of farms, especially smaller ones, has decreased, leading to larger average farm sizes (31 ha in 2005). The number of parcels per farm has also reduced, influenced by land consolidation policies and rural exodus.
- Smallholding: A small farm allowing adequate exploitation.
- Large estate: A large farm (over 100 ha) characterized by absentee ownership, low yield, extensive farming, low wages, and low investment.
Agricultural Workforce
Agricultural employment is low in Madrid and the Basque Country but high in Extremadura, La Rioja, Murcia, and Galicia. Rural exodus has led to an aging, unskilled workforce, hindering innovation and mechanization.
Technical Progress
Mechanization
Mechanization involves using machines for tasks like plowing and harvesting. Fertilizer use and selected seeds have improved yields. Genetically modified (GM) crops offer drought and pest resistance and higher yields.
New Techniques
- Crops under plastic (greenhouses): Create controlled environments for faster growth and multiple harvests.
- Sanded crops: Prevent water evaporation in sunny areas (southeastern Spain and Canary Islands).
- Hydroponics: Soil-less cultivation in inert substrates with nutrient-rich water, increasingly used for vegetables in Almeria and Murcia, offering faster growth.
Irrigation
Irrigation expands cultivation possibilities in arid areas and promotes intensive farming. Different systems exist:
- Traditional irrigation (flooding): Water-intensive and declining.
- Sprinkler irrigation: Mimics rainfall.
- Drip irrigation: Precise water delivery.
Rainfed agriculture relies solely on rainfall.
Intensive Agriculture/Livestock
Intensive systems achieve high yields per unit area through labor accumulation or technological advancements.
Agricultural Policy
Challenges for Spanish agricultural policy include land ownership concentration, small farm sizes, outdated techniques, low yields, and dispersed plots. Policies have aimed for rural development but face coordination challenges.
Key Policy Areas
- Irrigation expansion and water policy (Gasset Plan, Irrigation Act).
- Settlement policy (Franco era’s INC and IRYDA).
- Land consolidation.
- Pricing policy (FORPPA).
Post-democracy policies focus on supporting competitive farms, regulating sharecropping and leases, encouraging youth involvement, expanding irrigation, modernizing farms, and boosting rural industries and marketing. EU membership integrates Spanish policy with the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), aiming to increase production, ensure fair farmer incomes, stabilize markets, and provide reasonable consumer prices.