Spanish Agriculture in the 19th Century: Expansion and Crisis
Agriculture: The Agricultural Delay
Unlike what happened in other European countries where the 19th-century agricultural takeoff operated as an immediate background to industrialization, Spanish agriculture stayed away from achieving high yields. The agricultural sector was not aware of the transformations experienced in other countries, and one could not speak of an agricultural revolution in its environment. The reasons behind this delay are varied:
- Structural: The composition of the arable land was of poor quality, besides the scarcity of water.
- Social: There was a lack of sufficient motivation to make technical changes. The uneven distribution of ownership structure was a clear impediment.
- Economic: Spain lacked a domestic market, had no formal application, or an infrastructure network.
The Spanish field acquired more dynamism during the 19th century. The impact of improved transport, disentailments, and the progressive implementation of the liberal economic model enabled agriculture to play an important role in market development and national income.
The Expansion of the Agricultural Sector
Since 1870, agriculture underwent a process of expansion, including cereal, grapes, olives, and livestock. The increased production was not accompanied by higher yields and was the result of the growth of the cultivated area rather than the introduction of technological improvements, which were introduced slowly into the sector. The growing domestic demand was supplemented by modest exports to ensure the sector’s profitability. But it was a sustained development on fragile foundations, which was not able to avoid periodic food crises. At the end of the century, Spain was an eminently agricultural country. The active population was still very tied to the country and, due to limited industrial growth, this continued to be the main component of the country’s income.
The Contrast in the Countryside
Although agricultural activities increased significantly in profitability throughout the 19th century, there were social contrasts in the rural world, and income was very unevenly distributed:
- Owners saw their incomes rise throughout the century.
- The masses of wage laborers suffered very low wages, at the limit of survival.
Their harsh living conditions contributed to a malaise that increased and later explained the politicization of some rural areas of the country. The articulation of the domestic market led to complementarity between different agricultural areas, which in turn went on to specialize in crops.
- The Northern model was defined by the expansion of corn and increased alternative products such as potatoes.
- The Internal model is characterized by a high increase in the production of cereal flours, above the needs of the population, as it consolidated its role as an exporter of grain to other regions.
- The Mediterranean model saw the expansion of vineyards and fruit crops, such as oranges, for export.
The Century’s Crisis and the Rearrangement of the Sector
In the last decades of the 19th century, landowners all over Europe, including Spain, faced a crisis different in nature from traditional subsistence crises. The configuration of a global market, due to improved communications and transport, was producing a rearrangement of the global agricultural economy, and agricultural products from young countries invaded European markets. Although transportation costs were high, the high agricultural yields of these countries favored lower prices. Spanish farmers used a dual strategy: reconverting the industry with new products and requiring protectionist measures. The reduction of grain benefited from the phylloxera crisis in French vineyards and the olive tree. Wine, olive oil, and citrus fruits grew, especially in exports.