Spanish American Independence and Moroccan Protectorate
Spanish American Independence and its Aftermath
a) In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, a revolutionary consciousness developed in Spanish America. This was brought about by enlightened ideas, the demonstration effect of American independence, colonial economic expansion, administrative errors by the Monarchy, and the exclusion of natives. This consciousness reached its peak during the peninsular political crisis of 1808.
Upon the departure of Fernando VII of Spain and the start of the War of Independence, boards were created in America, imitating those in Spain, in which Creoles predominated. In 1810, these boards deposed almost all Spanish authorities, except in Peru, and began to govern themselves. Despite the proliferation of riots staged by the criollos seeking independence until 1815, this first stage of emancipation ended with relative failure. In fact, only Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay were able to consolidate their independence. Since 1816, new outbreaks of emancipation occurred.
Mexican Independence and Central America
The independence of Mexico followed a different process, taking place in the context of the Liberal Triennium. General Iturbide proclaimed the Plan of Iguala (1821), which incorporated the constitutional monarchy, Catholicism, and the equality of all Mexicans, without distinction of birth or race. General Iturbide declared himself emperor, but after the separation of the Central American territories and numerous internal conflicts, the empire was dissolved in 1823, and Mexico became a federal republic.
In 1822, the Central American territories of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica joined the Mexican Empire of Iturbide. The following year, they separated to form a federal state: the United Provinces of Central America. This country survived until 1839, when a civil war caused by local rivalries and political differences between liberals and conservatives led to the independence of its constituent territories.
The Problem of Morocco and Spanish Colonialism
1.4 – The problem of Morocco, at a time when the prestige of nations in the international context was measured by the size of their colonial empire, could be considered one of the ultimate consequences of the disaster of 1898. Thus, in 1904, Spain signed a secret agreement with France to divide the territory of Morocco into two protectorates. Since then, a slow Spanish colonial penetration began in Morocco, with the aim of exploiting the mineral resources of the Rif. The first incidents were recorded in 1909, following attacks on the Rif railway being built between the city of Melilla and the Rif, culminating in a serious defeat of Spanish troops (Barranco del Lobo, in 1909). In Spain, the government of Antonio Maura fell as a result of the events of the Tragic Week, driven by the conscription of reservists to fight this unpopular colonial war. In the following years, the situation in Morocco entered a relatively calm period, reasoned more by the disunity of the Rif than by Spanish military successes. Thus, in 1912, the division of land into two protectorates was completed, one French and one Spanish, depending on the areas occupied by each nation under the agreement of 1904 (with the exception of Tangier, a key strait, which came under international control.) Until 1921, the situation in the Protectorate was relatively quiet. That year, a Riff leader, Abd-el-Krim, managed to unite all the Kabyle under his leadership, triggering a rebellion throughout the country and destroying the Spanish army in Annual. This offensive broke the Spanish military power in North Africa, occupied the Rif, threatened the city of Melilla, and went on to found the Rif Republic (1923-1926). Given the general disaster, a deep debate opened about the responsibilities, accusing the military and politicians alike, even implicating the monarchy itself. Many at this time, like General Primo de Rivera, were in favor of leaving the Rif. However, the war continued.
After the military coup of 1923, one of the priorities of the military government headed by General Primo de Rivera was to eradicate the problem in Morocco. To this end, a cooperation agreement was made with France. This led to a large joint military operation that ended in the landing at Alhucemas Bay and the systematic conquest and pacification of the territory of the Protectorate of Morocco in 1927, when the military operations concluded.