Spanish American Independence & the Reign of Isabella II
1. Francisco Miranda and the Beginnings of Emancipation
In the early 19th century, the first ideas of independence arose in Spanish America, spearheaded by Francisco Miranda. This man paved the way for Bolívar and San Martín. The reasons for independence were:
- Philosophical: Based on reason, the right to happiness, and other arguments advanced by the American colonists.
- Economic: Based on the idea that the metropolis exploited the colonies with taxes and a ban on free trade and industries.
- Indigenous: Both Creoles and Indians felt neglected by the white Spaniards and believed their heritage and aspirations were being stolen.
2. 1805: Trafalgar and Buenos Aires
The defeat at Trafalgar prevented contact between America and Spain. Even though the Spanish navy had 200 ships, the British could block any move to America. Thus, America was limited to its own military capabilities, as demonstrated in the English landing attempt in Buenos Aires. The British initially occupied part of the city but were repulsed by the native militia and forced to re-embark. This convinced Buenos Aires that it could defend itself without Spanish help.
3. 1808: The First Emancipations
In 1808, Spain entered the war with Napoleon. In America, the natives took power after dismissing several authorities, including the viceroy of Buenos Aires, whom they accused of pro-French sentiments. But not all authorities were deposed; the viceroy of Peru, Abascal, maintained control over the entire Andean region. At first, the natives did not break with Ferdinand VII, swearing allegiance and recognizing him as supreme king. However, their meetings became increasingly sovereign, and from 1810, they began to consider independence as Spain was about to be overpowered by the French.
4. Abascal and the Spanish Reaction
Faced with the separatist outbreaks in Buenos Aires, Cundinamarca, and Quito, the royalists were strongly positioned in Lima and the Peruvian high altiplano. The Spanish government preferred a social reduction of Indians and blacks, fearing that independence would strip them of territories belonging to the viceroyalty. Although Abascal only controlled Spanish troops in Peru and Bolivia, he defended against Argentine assaults and recovered Chile and Ecuador. Meanwhile, in Venezuela, royalist forces led by Boves expelled Bolívar, significantly impacting the cause of independence.
5. Morillo and Bolívar
After the war of independence in Spain, Ferdinand VII sent a well-trained army of 10,000 veteran soldiers, who landed in northern South America and easily occupied Bogotá and Caracas. However, Morillo’s political and economic violence angered the natives, facilitating Bolívar’s return with the support of the plains led by Páez. Facing an impossible situation, Morillo signed a 6-month truce and called for withdrawal as Bolívar began winning battles against the weakened Spanish forces.
6. Bolívar and San Martín
By 1816, Bolívar had won battles like Carabobo, securing the independence of Colombia and Venezuela. He then moved into Ecuador and Peru. From Argentina, San Martín implemented a new strategy: instead of attacking the Bolivian highlands, he crossed the Andes. The Argentines surprised the Spanish and took control of Santiago. San Martín then crossed the Atacama Desert with English naval support. However, stuck in Lima, he met with Bolívar in Guayaquil to request support. Bolívar promised to liberate Peru himself.
7. Ayacucho
Bolívar’s troops, commanded by Sucre, pursued the Spanish into the interior of Peru and decisively defeated them at Ayacucho. Mexico followed a different path:
- Indian uprisings led by Hidalgo and Morelos.
- Crushing of revolts by the native bourgeoisie.
- An agreement establishing Mexico’s independence with equal Mexican and Spanish officials, Catholicism, and an emperor.
8. The End of Empire: Cuba and the Philippines
Cuba remained Spanish due to fear of black uprisings. However, economic and political grievances arose among the natives. The Ten Years’ War ended with the Peace of Zanjón, followed by the Little War and, from 1895, the final war. Cubans employed guerrilla tactics and cavalry charges. The Spanish responded with concentration camps and executions. The sinking of the Maine led the United States to declare war on Spain, defeating Spanish forces in Cavite and Cuba. Spain accepted the Treaty of Paris, relinquishing Cuba, the Philippines, and Puerto Rico for $300 million.
Fernando VII (1814-1833)
The Six Years of Absolutism
Upon returning from France, Fernando VII rejected the liberal principles in place. He traveled through Catalonia to Valencia, where he received advice from the Church and the army to restore absolute monarchy. General Elio strongly advocated abolishing the constitution. Fernando VII declared all acts performed in his absence null and void, arresting leading liberals. He restored the old regime, including the Inquisition and abolishing disentailment laws. The king had no solutions for the country’s problems: the ruined economy, the American rebellion, and military pronouncements.
The Ruined Economy
By 1814, Spanish state income was less than 800 billion reais, far less than 20 years earlier, due to war, lower prices, and the loss of American remittances. The state could no longer increase its debt and faced opposition to raising taxes. Taxation remained chaotic.
Military Pronouncements
Despite supporting absolutism, discontent arose within the army due to lack of pay, campaigns in America, and pursuing bandits. This created an alliance between liberals and the military. Military pronouncements, led by officers seeking liberal reforms, began in 1815. These were not merely coups but had political objectives. However, only the 1820 pronunciamiento found support.
The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)
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The Absolutist Decade
This period saw the suppression of liberals, economic reforms by López Ballesteros, the emergence of the stock exchange, and the first commercial code. Carlism emerged, with Carlos María Isidro as its leader. A French army maintained order. Military volunteers emerged. Fernando VII married his half-niece Maria Cristina, fathering Isabella and Luisa Fernanda. He changed the succession law, favoring Isabella, which the Carlists rejected. In 1832, Ferdinand VII fell ill, nearly changing his will to favor his brother, but recovered and appointed Cea Bermudez as minister.
Isabella II
Regencies
When her father died, Isabella II was 3 years old, and her mother, Maria Cristina, held the regency. Supporters of Don Carlos immediately launched the Carlist War.
The Carlist War
The Carlists consolidated their rebellion in the Basque Country, Navarre, Catalonia, and Maestrazgo. Their army was formed due to the existence of royal volunteers and competent generals like Zumalacarregui and Ramón Cabrera. The war was initially difficult for the Isabelline forces, but Zumalacarregui’s death in Bilbao turned the tide. The Convention of Vergara ended the war, with the Carlists recognizing Isabella II and their officers joining the national army.
Royal Statute
Under pressure from generals, Maria Cristina initiated political liberalization, appointing liberals like Martinez de la Rosa. The Royal Statute established a semi-parliamentary system with two legislative houses: the Estate of Proceres and the Estate of Attorneys. This system had limitations, preventing motions of censure and ministerial responsibility. Several governments changed during this period.
The Constitution of 1812
In 1836, sergeants forced the reinstatement of the 1812 Constitution. This constitution lacked a mechanism for resolving disputes between the executive and legislative branches. A new constitution was drafted.
The Constitution of 1837
This constitution was progressive but flexible. Moderates governed under it. A law on municipalities angered liberals, leading to Espartero’s War. Maria Cristina refused to remove the law, and Espartero’s uprising forced her to leave.
Espartero’s Regency
General Espartero became regent. Isabella II received new tutors. Espartero was a poor ruler, facing opposition from within his party and bombing Barcelona. His repression of moderates like Diego de Leon made him unpopular. Progressives and moderates revolted, and Espartero was removed from office.
The Personal Reign of Isabella II
The Progressive Coalition
A coalition government led by Olózaga was formed. Olózaga was accused of coercing the queen and dismissed. Bravo Gonzalez briefly ruled before Narváez arrived.
The Moderate Decade (1844-1854)
This decade was dominated by Narváez and the moderate right-wing of liberalism. They supported limited suffrage and a conservative constitution. Achievements included tax reform, the creation of the Civil Guard, public works like the Canal de Isabel II, the first railway, the Concordat with the Holy See, and the conversion of public debt. The moderates’ refusal to share power and their corruption led to crises.
The Progressive Biennium
Espartero disarmed rebels and formed a government. A new progressive constitution was drafted, along with an active economic policy and secularization. Social conflict in Catalonia led to a crisis between Odonell and Escosura. The queen supported Escosura, and Odonell became prime minister.
Moderate Biennium and Liberal Union
Odonell’s brief rule ended when the queen rejected his measures. Narváez and the moderates returned. The only major innovation was Claudio Moyano’s education law. The queen then appointed Odonell to lead the Liberal Union, which lasted five years and focused on foreign adventures. From 1863 to 1868, governments were unstable, culminating in Isabella II’s expulsion from the throne.