Spanish-American War: Causes, Battles, and Aftermath of 1898
Colonial War and Crisis of 1898
Spain becomes a second-rate power. In the late nineteenth century, Spain was internationally isolated. In this context, it lost Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines.
Cuba: A Coveted Colony
The island of Cuba had qualities that made it an object of desire:
Its strategic value. Spain used it as a platform to conquer Mexico and as a base for the defense of the West Indies and a commercial port.
The existence of fertile land and abundant water and forests, so it was economically attractive, especially when it became a major world producer of sugar and snuff.
The domination of Cuba by Spain went through different stages:
Cuba belonged to Spain since it was discovered by Christopher Columbus (1492) and conquered by Diego Velasquez (1511).
In 1869, an armed insurrection exploded in Cuba, launched by Carlos Manuel Cespedes with the Grito de Yara “Viva Cuba libre.” The U.S. supported this movement and tried to buy the island.
In 1878, for the Peace of Zanjon, Martinez Campos made peace with the Cuban insurgents. But the promises of autonomy were not respected, and the Cubans kept asking for participation in the government of the island, free trade, and the abolition of slavery. These requests were opposed by large landowners, merchants, and slavers on the mainland because it was against their interests, so there were still outbreaks of conflict.
In Cuba, two major parties were created:
The Autonomist Party, made up of part of the native bourgeoisie.
The Constitutional Union, formed by the Spanish who lived on the island.
Maura, overseas minister, proposed in 1893 a certain autonomy to Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines. This was not accepted, and Maura had to resign.
In the absence of responses from the Spanish government, the growing desire for independence led to José Martí founding the Cuban Revolutionary Party, whose aim was to achieve independence. This movement was supported by the U.S.
The result was that war broke out in Cuba and the Philippines.
Causes of the War
The Creoles wanted political and economic independence.
The intransigence of Spain in not granting autonomy to the island. By contrast, many emigrants were sent.
The economic and political interests of Spain, and that trade with Cuba was nearly a monopoly.
The island’s economic development meant that the U.S. would dominate.
Proceedings of the War
In Cuba
The war erupted in 1895, with the “Grito de Baire” and spread across the island to reach Havana.
Then, the Montecristi Manifesto was proclaimed, written by José Martí and Máximo Gómez, civilian and military leaders of the Cuban Revolutionary Party. When Martí died, Gómez and Antonio Maceo assumed the military leadership of the rebels.
General Cánovas Martínez Campos was sent to negotiate and prevent the advance of the separatists, but he failed and was replaced by General Weyler, who proposed:
Creating fortified lines to hinder enemy movement.
Concentrating farmers in certain areas to help prevent the rebels.
The war was not favorable to the Spanish due to the environment in which it developed (the forest), the method used by the insurgents (guerrillas), the lack of adequate materials, and tropical diseases affecting the Spanish troops.
After the assassination of Cánovas, Sagasta relieved General Weyler and Blanco and organized a semi-autonomous government in Havana, but this solution did not convince anyone, especially since independence with U.S. support was desired.
Meanwhile, U.S. President McKinley asked the regent Maria Cristina for the immediate sale of the island to avoid military intervention. In February 1898, the battleship Maine, sent to Cuba by the U.S., exploded and sank with the crew in the Bay of Havana. The U.S. blamed Spain and offered to buy the island, but politicians chose an honorable defeat before a purchased peace. The U.S. declared war on Spain in April 1898.
The Spanish fleet, commanded by Admiral Cervera, was defeated at the Battle of Santiago, where old Spanish ships engaged the modern ships of the Americans.
In the Philippines
The year after the conflict broke out in Cuba (1896), the Philippines also rose up in arms against Spain.
The Philippines was interesting for its production of snuff and its position on trade with Asia. At the head of the insurrection was the Liga Filipina, founded by José Rizal, and a clandestine organization called Katipunan.
To quell the rebellion, Spain sent General Polavieja, who acted with extreme severity, condemning Rizal to death.
When liberals came to power, Captain General Fernando Primo de Rivera was appointed. Thanks to negotiations with the leaders of the insurrection, he achieved a temporary pacification of the archipelago.
Finally, the Spanish squad was wiped out by the U.S. in Cavite in 1898.
Conclusion of the War
Spain had to accept the mediation of France and peace, so in 1898, it signed the Treaty of Paris. For this peace, Spain granted independence to Cuba and ceded Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and the island of Guam to the U.S. as compensation for the war.
Months later, Spain sold the Carolines to Germany and the Marianas. A small number of soldiers in Baler continued the war until 11 months later.
This is called “the disaster” because after the war, a period of pessimism and criticism of the regime of the Restoration began, especially the system of Cánovas, centralism, and the absence of a social policy. Also, they looked for those responsible:
A ruling class because they did not take appropriate measures to avoid facing the U.S.
A public opinion because they supported the intervention.
The press that encouraged the crowd and pressured governments.
Consequences
Large numbers of deaths occurred, but they were due to diseases rather than the conduct of war.
The recruitment for the war in Cuba only affected those who had no money, since it could be avoided by paying 2,000 pesetas.
With the independence of the last colonies, there was the disappearance of colonial markets, which hurt exports of Spanish products, while imported goods prices soared from former colonies. Moreover, public debt increased due to the cost of the war, but the repatriation of many capitals caused the economic disaster to be less than expected.
It increased the military’s rejection. The labor movement campaigned against unfair recruitment, and the military grew convinced that the defeat was due to the inefficiency and corruption of politicians, so they must become more involved in the country’s policy.
An intellectual and critical movement, the Regeneration, appeared, which rejected the political and social system of the Restoration. Some of their representatives were Unamuno, Joaquín Costa, and Angel Ganivet. This movement had a literary side, the generation of ’98, who thought that after the loss of the colonies, they had to give new impetus to intellectual and political life.
In the international context, Spain became a secondary power, and the foreign press presented Spain in a very negative way. The political crisis stimulated the growth of nationalist movements.
The disaster of 98 meant the end of the Restoration system as designed by Cánovas, and the emergence of a new generation of politicians began to act in the new reign of Alfonso XIII.