Spanish American Wars of Independence: A History
The Emancipation of Spanish America
Causes of Independence
The Creoles, descendants of Spanish settlers born in the Americas, controlled estates, plantations, and a small manufacturing sector. Representing 10-15% of the population, they held significant social and economic power. Indigenous people, mestizos, and enslaved Africans constituted a largely exploited peasant and mining class under Spanish and Creole rule. Spaniards held all major public offices, including viceroys and presidents of the audiencia.
Resentment grew among the Creoles due to discriminatory treatment by the Spanish government, which limited their access to public office and hindered their economic advancement. Enlightened government policies, while aiming to increase tax revenue and administrative control, exacerbated this situation. Eighteenth-century protest movements and peasant uprisings, along with the influence of liberal ideology from the American Revolution, further fueled the desire for emancipation.
The Independence Process
The independence process was complex, involving political maneuvering, urban unrest, peasant movements, and shifting troop allegiances. Indigenous populations initially supported the Spanish crown but later joined the liberation movement. The stance of Spanish viceroys and generals proved crucial in swaying support towards independence.
The First Phase (1808-1814)
Coinciding with the Napoleonic Wars, the native bourgeoisie in major cities formed juntas similar to those in Spain, declaring loyalty to Ferdinand VII while deposing viceroys and captains general. They later rejected the authority of the Central Junta and established revolutionary meetings in 1810. Internal divisions among Creole leaders allowed royalist troops to recapture rebel cities in 1813. In Mexico, Creoles sided with Spain to suppress an indigenous uprising.
The Triumph of Independence
The Second Phase (1816-1820)
Following the restoration of absolutism in Spain, revolutionary forces resurged. The United Provinces of South America (future Argentina) declared independence. José de San Martín’s army won the Battle of Chacabuco, leading to Chile’s independence in 1818. Simón Bolívar, after capturing Angostura in 1819, proclaimed the Republic of Gran Colombia (present-day Venezuela, Colombia, and Panama), with himself as president. Victory at Boyacá (Colombia, 1819) further solidified the movement.
The Last Phase (1820-1824)
The 1820 revolution in Spain weakened the colonial army. San Martín and Bolívar converged on the Viceroyalty of Peru. American troops proclaimed Peruvian independence in 1821. Mexico also achieved independence in 1821 under Agustín de Iturbide’s Plan of Iguala. The decisive victory at Ayacucho in 1824 sealed Spanish defeat, followed by Bolivian independence. Only Cuba and Puerto Rico remained under Spanish rule.
The Independence Movement: Balance and International Context
The 1820s saw the consolidation of new nations, though attempts at a federal union like the United States failed. Spanish defeat resulted from the strength of independence movements and internal problems within the Spanish monarchy. Diplomatic and military support from the United States and Britain played a crucial role.