Spanish American Wars of Independence and Liberal Revolution

Posted on Nov 30, 2024 in History

1. The Crisis of the Old Regime

I. The War of Independence and the Beginnings of the Liberal Revolution

I.1. The War of Independence

I.1.1. The Impact of the French Revolution in Spain

In 1788, Charles IV ascended the throne, inheriting the institutions of the Old Regime. The French Revolution introduced the possibility of a liberal revolution in Spain. A two-pronged war ensued: a civil war between Bourbon loyalists and those favoring French influence, and an international war, as Spain became a battleground for English and French armies. This prompted a swift reaction from Spanish authorities concerned about the spread of revolutionary sentiment.

Charles IV replaced the Conde de Aranda in 1792, seeking to improve relations with France, hoping to contain the revolution and save Louis XVI. Godoy replaced the Conde de Aranda, who failed to save Louis XVI. The Peace of Basel followed in July 1795, restoring Spain’s territorial integrity in exchange for the island of Santo Domingo. A year later, the Pact of San Ildefonso renewed the Franco-Spanish alliance against England, with Godoy convinced that the threat lay in British encroachment on American markets. The Spanish navy was defeated at Cape St. Vincent, crippling overseas trade.

With Napoleon Bonaparte’s rise to power in 1799, and the weakness of Charles IV, Napoleonic intervention increased. Godoy was compelled to invade Portugal (War of the Oranges) to close its ports to British commerce. In 1802, France and Britain signed a peace treaty, but Spain soon lost its fleet at Trafalgar (1805) to Admiral Nelson. American possessions were cut off, and Spain’s economic collapse became unstoppable. By late 1807, the domestic situation was chaotic.

Adding to the chaos was the bankruptcy of the Treasury due to successive wars and the growing disrepute of institutions. This contributed to the discrediting of Godoy, the Prince of Peace. The nobility rallied around Crown Prince Ferdinand, who conspired against his parents. The clergy, angered by confiscations and persecution of the Holy Office, convinced the lower classes that Godoy was to blame for all ills. The people viewed Ferdinand as a savior. In October 1807, a conspiracy by Ferdinand, supported by “the clique,” was discovered. Ferdinand received his parents’ forgiveness after the Escorial process, where he betrayed his supporters.

I.1.2. The War of Independence: Phases and Consequences

The War of Independence originated in 1807. Napoleon’s Continental System against British goods clashed with Portugal’s refusal to comply. The Treaty of Fontainebleau allowed French troops passage through Spain to occupy Portugal. Junot’s troops quickly entered Lisbon. On the night of March 17-18, 1808, the Mutiny of Aranjuez saw Ferdinand’s supporters storm the palace. Godoy was deposed and arrested, and Charles IV abdicated in favor of his son. Napoleon, exploiting the situation, conceived a new project: removing the Spanish Bourbons and replacing them with his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, and converting Spanish territories north of the Ebro River into French provinces.

When Ferdinand entered Madrid, Murat’s troops were already there. The Spanish royal family became hostages. Napoleon sent General Savary to convince Ferdinand to travel north to meet him. Leaving a Governing Board in Madrid, Ferdinand embarked on a journey to Bayonne on April 10, arriving on April 20. Shameful negotiations ensued.

The alarm triggered an uprising in Madrid on May 2. Murat declared himself the highest authority. The mayor of Móstoles, Andrés Torrejón, issued a proclamation calling for resistance. News of the Madrid uprising and the Bayonne Abdication spread. The abdications of Ferdinand in favor of his parents and then to Bonaparte (May 7, 1808) followed. Charles IV’s conditions included the unity of the Spanish domains and the exclusivity of Catholicism. In return, he received French castles and an income. Ferdinand began his exile at Valençay. Napoleon appointed his brother Joseph as King of Spain. War had broken out.

The Council of Castile and the Governing Board obeyed French orders, as did many high-ranking church officials and military commanders. However, the population rejected the new sovereign. Uprisings erupted across the country. The uprisings of May 1808 were a national and popular war, but not a revolutionary one. The struggle against the French intensified national identity. The ideology was based on defending religion and monarchy, a traditional view not shared by the liberal minority who sought their own revolution. The Church, unable to prevent a minority in Cádiz from legislating, laid the foundation for a future liberal revolution. Joseph Bonaparte failed to gain the support of enlightened minorities.

The uprisings and abdications created a power vacuum. To control unoccupied regions, prominent citizens established Provincial Boards, assuming sovereignty in the name of the absent king. The Supreme Central Junta, with delegates like Jovellanos, formed in Aranjuez (September 1808) and assumed sovereign powers.

Phases of the War:

Wide participation
Desire for independence
Nationalist enthusiasm and rejection of the French

a) First stage (May to late 1808): The French army initially held a clear advantage. The Spanish showed resilience, aided by British and Portuguese units. The French attempted to quell urban uprisings. The siege of Saragossa, organized by General Palafox, began in mid-June. The Spanish achieved a victory at Bailén (July 19), Napoleon’s first land defeat. Joseph Bonaparte retreated to Vitoria, and French troops withdrew to the Ebro River. The British defeated the French in Portugal.

b) Second stage (late 1808 to late 1811): Napoleon arrived with the Grande Armée, retaking Madrid. Joseph Bonaparte returned to Madrid, while the Central Junta sought refuge in Seville and then Cádiz. Cádiz resisted with British help. The war became a war of attrition, with guerrilla warfare playing a crucial role. Guerrillas avoided direct confrontation, opting for ambushes. The French responded with harsh repression.

c) Third stage (1811-1813): The war shifted. The French left Portugal and moved south. Wellington recaptured Badajoz. In spring 1812, the war turned decisively. Wellington, leading British, Portuguese, and Spanish troops, aided by guerrillas, defeated the French at Arapiles near Salamanca. Andalusia was liberated, and Madrid was entered, forcing Joseph I to flee. Defeated in Austria, Napoleon made an agreement with Ferdinand VII, releasing him and returning the Spanish crown (Treaty of Valençay).

Consequences of the invasion and war:

Around 470 battles and countless skirmishes occurred. Madrid changed hands six times.

A) Internal Consequences:

Heavy casualties (around 300,000) and economic devastation
Deterioration of the Catalan textile industry
Ruin of the Spanish Treasury
Exile of Francophiles, the first political emigration in modern Spanish history

B) International Impact:

The defeat at Bailén demonstrated French vulnerability
Guerrilla warfare undermined French prestige
The war triggered independence movements in American colonies. Creoles, influenced by American and French revolutions, organized their own boards and councils. The American colonies moved towards independence.

I.1.3. The Reign of Joseph Bonaparte

Joseph I’s reign began in July 1808, promising Spain’s integrity, independence, and reforms. It was marked by a power vacuum, resistance to French rule, and popular rejection of his government. Joseph I made efforts to win over the Spanish. The Bayonne Constitution was adopted. Before leaving Spain in January 1809, he issued eight decrees from Burgos, including the dissolution of the Council of Castile, abolition of the Inquisition, reduction of convents, abolition of seigneurial jurisdiction, and elimination of internal customs barriers. The statute outlined a Catholic confessional state, a Council of Ministers, a bicameral system, a State Council, and a hereditary monarchy. His flight to Valencia after the defeat at Arapiles in July 1812 ended his government.

I.2. The Beginnings of Liberalism in Spain

I.2.1. The Organization of the Resistance and the Convocation of the Cortes

The Bourbon abdication created a power vacuum, with patriots resisting French rule. Local and provincial boards emerged, governing in the name of Ferdinand VII. A central government was needed. The Central Junta, with 36 representatives, formed, representing various resistance factions. It governed the country, directed military resistance, and convened the Cortes in Cádiz. A Cortes committee discussed elections and the structure of the Cortes, agreeing on a constituent Cortes elected by vote. In January 1810, instructions for Cortes elections were issued. The Junta, under pressure, dissolved and transferred power to a Regency Council, which called for Cortes elections in June 1810. A single-chamber Cortes resulted due to difficulties in organizing votes for privileged classes. The Cortes opened on September 24, 1810.

I.2.2. The Cortes of Cádiz

The Cortes of Cádiz began with a problem and ended with a liberal revolution. The meeting itself was a revolution, driven by pressure from Seville, Cádiz, and Jaén. The Junta’s primary mission was to address the war, but it recognized the need to reconstruct the state. One faction, represented by Jovellanos, favored a return to the traditional system. Another, influenced by France, advocated a constitution based on modern principles. The Cortes met on September 24, 1810, proclaiming national sovereignty, separation of powers, and new representation.

Elections were difficult. Deputies were chosen from those present in Cádiz, predominantly middle class with intellectual training, along with nobles and bishops. The masses were not represented. Liberals, supporting revolutionary reforms, dominated discussions. Absolutists, or “serviles,” defended the old monarchy. The Cortes proclaimed Ferdinand VII as the rightful king but focused on developing a constitution, promulgated on March 19, 1812, recognizing Catholicism and the need for public education and abolishing seigneurial jurisdiction.

2. The Constitution of 1812

On March 19, 1812, the Cortes of Cádiz proclaimed “La Pepa,” Spain’s first constitution, outlining liberal principles. Essential features:

Grassroots Constitution: Created by the Spanish nation without royal participation, but not against the king.
Democratic: Based on national sovereignty, universal male suffrage, separation of powers, civil rights, and political freedoms.
Comprehensive: 384 articles, regulating state powers and individual rights.
Rigid: Reform required complex procedures.

Legislative work principles:

A) National Sovereignty: Power resides in the nation.

B) Separation of Powers: Legislative power vested in a unicameral Cortes. Judicial power in courts, with special jurisdictions for clergy and military. Executive power in the king, who could not dissolve the Cortes. The king reigned but did not govern, retaining powers to propose laws, command armed forces, manage international relations, and appoint ministers (with Cortes support). The king had a suspensive veto.

C) Representation: Deputies represented all Spaniards, elected through indirect universal male suffrage.

D) Equality before the law: End of estate-based differences.

E) New Society: Based on liberty, equality, and property. Aimed to establish a market economy, defending individual land ownership. Abolished jurisdictional domains (August 6, 1811), converting them into private property.

F) Other legislative decisions:

Political reforms: Disappearance of old councils, establishment of ministries and provincial divisions.
Religious reforms: Abolition of the Inquisition and the Vote of Santiago.
Socio-economic reforms: Public submissions plan, disentailment programs, agricultural promotion, labor freedom, abolition of guilds.
Individual rights: Education, press, domicile, liberty, property.
Catholicism as the only allowed religion.
Reorganization of armed forces.

The 1812 Constitution became a symbol of freedom, initiating Spanish constitutionalism and influencing other European countries and Latin American republics. Despite the liberals’ triumph, the victory was not final. The legislative work of Cádiz aimed to consolidate reforms and incorporate liberal currents.

3. Restoration of Absolutism and Liberal Attempts under Ferdinand VII

Ferdinand VII’s reign (1814-1833) was marked by conflict between absolutism and liberalism. Released by the Treaty of Valençay (1813), he returned in March 1814. With the help of the British and General Eguía, he annulled the liberal work (Decree of Valencia, May 4, 1814), restoring absolutism and repressing liberals. The Manifesto of the Persians justified the annulment of the Cádiz Cortes’ work. The restoration coincided with a deep economic crisis.

III.1. Stages of his reign

1. The Absolute Sexenio (1814-1820)

The Old Regime and pre-1808 conditions were restored. The king’s unlimited power and the alliance of “Altar and Throne” were emphasized. The decree of May 4 eliminated national sovereignty and the Cortes. The Cádiz Constitution and related legislation were repealed. Noble and Church privileges were restored. The Inquisition and Mesta were revived. The Jesuits returned. The pronouncement of Riego in 1820, led by Rafael del Riego, ended absolutism and proclaimed the Constitution. Ferdinand VII swore allegiance to the 1812 Constitution, beginning the Liberal Triennium.

2. The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)

The Triennium was marked by government instability due to divisions among liberals (moderates and radicals) and the king’s resistance. Ferdinand VII sought foreign intervention. Street pressure led to uprisings. Reform laws aimed to dismantle the old regime. Counterrevolutionary movements and the Quintuple Alliance (Congress of Verona, 1822) led to French intervention. The French army entered Spain in April 1823, restoring Ferdinand VII’s absolute power in October.

3. The Ominous Decade (1823-1833)

Absolutism returned, with repression against liberals. Economic inefficiency and pressure from ultra-royalists led to the rise of Carlism. An Interim Board and regency restored the old regime. Repressive measures included military commissions, Purification Boards, Meetings of Faith, and Royalist Volunteers. Ferdinand VII requested French troops to rebuild the army. Absolutism was divided. Realist uprisings and the War of the Aggrieved (1827) occurred. The succession issue arose after the death of Ferdinand VII’s third wife. He married Maria Cristina of Naples, and the Salic Law was overturned. Ferdinand VII died in 1833, leaving Carlists and Isabelline factions facing each other.

4. The Independence of Spanish America

The American independence movement originated in the 18th century, influenced by Bourbon policies and social structures. Creoles controlled estates and plantations, while indios, mestizos, and blacks formed an exploited peasantry. Spaniards held key administrative positions. Liberal ideology spread among Creoles. Independence movements were led by creole elites in major cities. Indigenous populations initially supported the metropolis but later joined the movement.

First phase: Creole bourgeoisie formed juntas, deposing viceroys. American leaders rejected the authority of the Regency of Cadiz. Revolutionary movements emerged in Caracas, Buenos Aires, Bogotá, and Santiago de Chile (1810). Internal divisions hindered coordination against royalist troops. Royalists regained ground from 1813. Morillo’s army restored control in the north (1814). Revolutionary ideology continued to spread.

Second phase (from 1816): The restoration of absolutism in Spain fueled independence movements. The Congress of Tucumán proclaimed the independence of the United Provinces of South America (Argentina) in 1816. Simón Bolívar resumed operations in Venezuela (1816). The Congress of Angostura proclaimed the Republic of Gran Colombia (1819). José de San Martín’s army crossed the Andes, leading to Chile’s independence (1818).

Third phase (from 1820): San Martín and Bolívar converged on Peru. San Martín entered Lima (1821), proclaiming Peru’s independence. Bolívar entered Quito. Bolívar recaptured Lima (1824). Sucre defeated La Serna at Ayacucho (1824), leading to Bolivia’s independence. The 1820s saw the consolidation of new republics. Regionalist tendencies led to the breakup of Gran Colombia and the division of the South into Argentina, Peru, and Chile. Spanish defeat was due to the strength of independence movements and internal problems of the monarchy.