Spanish Civil War (1936-1939): Key Phases and Developments
The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)
War Development
The Popular Front’s rule during this period was marked by deteriorating social order and socio-economic radicalization. Several key events unfolded:
- A military conspiracy in April 1936.
- A military insurrection on July 17, 1936, in Melilla, which spread across the peninsula by July 18, 1936.
- The division of Spain into two zones: Republican and Nationalist (insurgent), marking the start of the Spanish Civil War.
The Spanish Civil War is one of the most dramatic events in recent history. It became a global event, polarizing public opinion and the attitudes of world powers. Within the context of consolidating fascist dictatorships in Germany and Italy, and the Soviet regime, the war in Spain became a struggle between two major international political models: democratic and authoritarian. The support each side received is as follows:
The Republic:
The Republic was supported by left-wing political and union organizations (PSOE, UGT, etc.), which sent their members to form militias armed by the government. These militias, while gaining some operational success, often acted independently of military command. The naval force, though largely loyal to the Republic, was ineffective due to a lack of commanding officers and mainly served to hinder the passage of aviation across the strait. The air force also remained largely faithful to the Republic but was significantly outmatched by the Condor Legion.
The Insurgents/Nationalists:
The Insurgents/Nationalists grouped various conservative social and political forces: monarchists, traditionalists (Carlists), and the Falange. They were also supported by broad sectors of the CEDA. The Carlists’ paramilitary organization was critical for their triumph in Navarre. Crucially, the discipline and organization of the armed forces, along with the Civil Guard’s support, helped to destabilize the Republican government.
Phases of the War
The war’s development can be divided into four phases:
1st Phase: War of Columns (July-November 1936)
The rebels, supported by maritime and air power from Germany and Italy, along with an army of legionnaires and regulars from Africa, advanced from two starting points: Franco in the south and General Mola in the north (Navarre), both moving towards Madrid. The southern advance stalled near Madrid at the Jarama River, and the northern advance at Guadalajara in October. Command was unified, with Franco as Head of State. The Republicans, opposing the professional army with poorly armed and untrained militias organized by parties and unions, were offset by the heroic resistance of Madrid. In late October, the Battle of Madrid began. By then, the Republic had received Soviet military equipment and the International Brigades were organized. The Republican government moved to Valencia. The rebels faced a double failure: the Battle of Jarama and the Battle of Guadalajara. The rebels failed to take Madrid.
2nd Phase: The Occupation of the North (December 1936-October 1937)
This phase began with a balance of forces that gradually tilted towards the Nationalists. Franco abandoned the focus on Madrid and concentrated on the northern campaign to conquer the Cantabrian coast, isolating that Republican area. The Republicans launched offensives on other fronts, including the Battle of Brunete and the Aragon front. On April 26, 1937, Guernica was razed by Nazi aviation, marking the first bombing of a civilian population in history. The Republic did not achieve its objectives, and the Nationalists occupied the north, dealing a serious blow to the Republic.
3rd Phase: Advance Towards the Mediterranean (November 1937-June 1938)
In December 1937, the Republican government took the initiative with the Battle of Teruel, maintaining its occupation until early February. Franco launched the Aragon campaign, reaching Castellón. The Republican territory was divided into two zones, one of which was Catalonia.
4th Phase: The Battle of the Ebro and the End of the War (July 1938-April 1939)
This phase, featuring one of the major military episodes of the war, began with a Republican counteroffensive. However, Franco, with the help of the Italians and Germans, counterattacked and advanced completely across the Ebro River near its mouth, severely crippling the Republican army. In December 1938, the Nationalists began their offensive against Catalonia, conquering it within a month. This led to a massive wave of refugees towards France, including the Republican government, which had been installed in Barcelona since October 1937, along with President Azaña and Prime Minister Negrín. Only central Spain and the Levantine coast remained under Republican control. Colonel Casado in Madrid negotiated the surrender, a capitulation without conditions. On April 1, 1939, the war ended with a message stating, “Today, Red Army captive and disarmed, National troops have reached their final military objectives. The war has ended.” The war’s drama resulted in 300,000 deaths, along with memories of raids, executions, hunger, destruction, and exile, leaving wounds in Spanish society for many years.