Spanish Civil War: 1936 Origins, Uprising, and Division
Introduction: The Path to Conflict
In 1936, the deep contradictions within Spanish society led to an armed confrontation. This marked a break from the democratic path and had profound consequences, including a dictatorship lasting almost 40 years and Spain’s resulting isolation from European democracies.
Military Uprising and International Context
Causes of the Conflict
The causes of the uprising were multifaceted:
- Remote Causes: The manner in which the liberal revolution was conducted in Spain, frequent military intervention in politics, and the country’s weak modernization.
- Proximate Causes: The socio-economic crisis driven by the crash of ’29, alongside the rise of fascism and the influence of the Russian Revolution. In Spain, the Republic opted for reformism but was unable to resolve underlying problems amid the growing radicalization of both left and right positions.
- Military Conspiracy: Conspiracies against the Republic existed from its beginning, leading to several coup attempts. After the electoral triumph of the Popular Front in February 1936, Generals Mola, Goded, and Franco intensified their plotting. Fascist and anti-Republican doctrines found support among most conservative officers. General Mola, the chief planner, radioed orders through a series of famous ‘reserved instructions’ (instrucciones reservadas). He gained the support of all anti-republican groups, their militias (like the Carlists), and the Falange.
A minority of army officers and non-commissioned officers loyal to the Republic had formed the anti-fascist Republican Military Union (Unión Militar Republicana Antifascista – UMRA).
The uprising was precipitated by the murder of the prominent monarchist politician José Calvo Sotelo by leftist extremists on July 13, 1936.
The Uprising Begins
The military revolt, led by General Yagüe, started in Melilla (Spanish Morocco) on July 17, 1936. The next day, General Franco flew from the Canary Islands to Morocco to take command of the crucial Army of Africa.
On July 19, the revolt spread throughout the peninsula but did not succeed everywhere. Spain became divided: the revolt triumphed in conservative, rural areas, Mallorca, Ibiza, the Canary Islands, and the Moroccan protectorate. It failed in major cities and the industrialized regions of the north and east.
Division of Spain
The failure of the coup to take immediate control led to the division of the country and the outbreak of the Civil War. The two sides consolidated:
- The Rebels (Nationalists): Supported by conservative military officers, monarchists (including Carlists), Catholics, landowners, and fascist groups. They defined themselves as ‘Nationals’ (nacionales).
- The Loyalists (Republicans): Supported by workers, landless peasants, urban employees, liberal middle classes, and leftist parties. They were often labelled ‘Reds’ (rojos) by the insurgents.
Comparison of Forces
- The Republic: Initially controlled major cities, industrial and mining areas, the Navy and Air Force (though with questionable loyalty), and held the substantial gold reserves of the Bank of Spain.
- The Rebels: Controlled major agricultural regions, had the support of the most effective part of the army (especially the experienced Army of Africa), and were backed by well-organized Carlist and Falangist militias.
International Reactions
The Civil War unfolded within a complex international context, far from indifferent:
- Support for the Republic: Came ideologically from the democratic and liberal world, which often identified the struggle with defending democracy against fascism. Material support came primarily from the Soviet Union and Mexico, along with volunteers forming the International Brigades.
- Support for the Rebels: Came decisively from the fascist powers in Europe (Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy), providing troops, aircraft, and equipment. They also received support from international Catholicism and Portugal.
The Non-Intervention Committee
The international dimension of the war, and the fear of escalation, led to the creation of the Non-Intervention Committee in London. Its stated goal was to prevent foreign military intervention that could escalate the Spanish conflict into a wider European war. Great Britain pressured France (initially sympathetic to the Republic) not to intervene directly and promoted the committee’s creation, which 27 countries eventually joined.
However, the committee proved largely ineffective, essentially a sham, as Germany, Italy, and the Soviet Union continued to supply aid to their respective sides. Its actions were limited:
- 1936-1937: Attempted to monitor aid flows and establish patrols, without significant results.
- 1938: Focused on plans for the withdrawal of foreign volunteers who fought on both sides.
- 1939: Following the Nationalist victory, member states gradually extended diplomatic recognition to Franco’s Spain, reflecting the shifting power dynamics in Europe leading up to World War II.