Spanish Civil War: A Concise History (1936-1939)
The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)
1. Causes and Military Uprising
A. Causes of the War
The core issue was the fear of oligarchic groups of a proletarian and democratic revolution. Other stated causes included restoring order and defending religion. However, the uprising was primarily driven by resistance to change and the potential loss of privileges. Large landowners, military officers, clergy, and big financiers were the key protagonists of the uprising against perceived “anarchy” or “Communism”. The uprising’s main strength came from military leaders with conservative ideologies, a strong sense of caste, limited political ideas, and sympathy for fascism.
B. The Military Revolt
The revolt began on July 17, 1936, in Morocco. Franco traveled to Morocco and assumed leadership. Spain became divided into two zones, and the coup, having initially failed, escalated into civil war. The loyalist area was further divided. Workers formed the first volunteer militias for the Republic. Both the central government and regional governments lost control of public order and military initiative. This marked the beginning of the Civil War, which lasted until April 1, 1939.
The Forces of the Two Spains:
Republicans: Manuel Azaña was president, and a new government was formed by José Giral, consisting solely of Republican parties. This government was weak, and labor organizations took action through committees and councils. The military organization was dismantled, but the Republic held most of Spain’s industrial resources, important agricultural areas in the north, and over 60% of the population. Its main weaknesses were the lack of a trained army and experienced leadership. Regional authorities exerted significant autonomy.
Rebels (Nationalists): They had clear military superiority. After Sanjurjo’s death, the National Defense Council was chaired by Cabanellas. They controlled major agricultural areas.
C. International Dimensions of the Conflict
Aid from Foreign Countries:
Fascist Support: Germany, Italy, and Portugal provided support. Italy and Germany had political and strategic motivations: the conflict served as a testing ground for their armies, and they shared the rebels’ ideology. They provided military equipment, contrasting with the Republic’s difficulties in acquiring arms. During World War II, Franco sent volunteers to the Russian front and protected Nazis and Fascists. For Italy, control of the Mediterranean was useful against Great Britain. Much of the Italo-German aid was semi-gratuitous, and Spain provided Germany with needed materials during World War II. Portugal, under Oliveira Salazar, also provided support, controlled the border, and handed over Republicans who sought refuge there.
The papacy provided moral support, encouraging Catholics to back the rebels. This influenced international public opinion. The Vatican recognized the Franco regime in 1937.
Liberal Democracies—Appeasement and Neutrality: In France, there were calls for support for the Republican government, but the French government closed its borders to prevent arms from entering Spain. The US and Britain remained neutral to avoid escalating the “European crisis”.
USSR: The Spanish Republican Government received aid from the USSR (from September 1936) and limited help from Mexico (under Lázaro Cárdenas). Soviet support was motivated by a policy of backing democratic governments against Nazism. They sent military equipment and advisors and welcomed exiles.
International Brigades: The Soviet government, through the Communist International, recruited volunteers and encouraged anti-fascist solidarity movements. Up to 40,000 anti-fascist volunteers joined the International Brigades (from November 1936).
Non-Intervention Agreement: The non-intervention policy harmed the Republic by preventing the legitimate government from purchasing arms to defend against the rebellion. A committee was formed to enforce this policy, but it failed, strengthening fascism and contributing to World War II.
Public Opinion and Intellectuals: The Republican cause attracted sympathy from leftists and intellectuals. In countries with fascist regimes, public opinion and intellectuals often favored the Nationalists. Catholics in democratic countries tended to support Franco, but many were anti-German. Independent intellectuals in Europe and America supported the Republic, identifying with democracy and social revolution.
2. Development of the Civil War (1936-1939)
The war unfolded in several stages, largely dictated by the rebels’ initiative.
A. The War of Columns and the March to Madrid (1936)
The regular army sided with the rebels, while the Republican army consisted of militiamen led by José Miaja and Vicente Rojo. Madrid was the insurgents’ primary target. Mola’s columns, advancing through the Guadarrama mountains, were delayed by militia resistance. Franco and Yagüe’s troops advanced towards Madrid from the south. With air and naval support from Hitler and Mussolini, they crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and, after joining Queipo de Llano’s forces in Seville, advanced through Extremadura. Columns linked areas controlled by the insurgents. By October, they were approaching Madrid. Mola’s capture of Irun cut off the Republican army’s access to France, preventing the arrival of reinforcements by land. San Sebastián also surrendered to the rebels.
B. The Battle for Madrid (November 1936 – March 1937)
This was a war of attrition. The fronts stabilized, foreign intervention increased, and a new People’s Army was created. Madrid’s unexpected resilience was a key factor. The Republican government moved to Valencia. A Defense Board chaired by Miaja, with Vicente Rojo as a key figure, organized the resistance and received foreign reinforcements (International Brigades). The Republican army repelled the initial assault on the city from the west. Unable to take the city directly, Franco launched an encirclement operation, resulting in three battles: the Coruña Road (end of 1936), the Jarama River (February 1937), and Guadalajara (March 1937). The rebels failed to encircle Madrid. To the south, rebels took Málaga (February 1937) with the help of Mussolini’s troops. The Republic needed a more disciplined army.
C. The Campaign in the North and Republican Setbacks (March 1937 – March 1938)
Franco shifted his strategy to occupy the north, aided by his air and naval superiority. The Nationalist army occupied Biscay, and part of the Republican army surrendered to the Italians after the Santoña Pact. Guernica was bombed. Bilbao, Santander, and Asturias fell. After conquering the north, Franco turned his attention back to Madrid.
The Failed Republican Offensives at Brunete and Belchite: The Republican People’s Army launched offensives to halt Franco’s advance. The battles of Brunete and Belchite resulted in failed Republican attempts to occupy Aragon.
The Grueling Battle of Teruel (December 1937 – February 1938): In the first stage, Republicans took Teruel. Franco sought to recapture it for psychological reasons. The Nationalists eventually retook the city, inflicting heavy casualties and damaging Republican morale.
D. The Battle of the Ebro and the Occupation of Catalonia (February 1938 – February 1939)
The Collapse of the Aragon Front: Franco launched an offensive along the Aragon front to reach the Mediterranean and split the Republican zone. This was achieved in April 1938 at Castellón, and the advance continued towards Catalonia and Valencia. However, the Republicans managed to recover and halt the advance.
The Battle of the Ebro: In July 1938, the Republican army launched a surprise offensive from Catalonia, crossing the Ebro River. This operation, designed by Vicente Rojo, aimed to prolong the conflict, hoping for international intervention and support from democracies. It also sought to unite the two Republican zones. The Battle of the Ebro, lasting until November 1938, was the bloodiest of the war. The Republicans were eventually pushed back, and the People’s Army was severely weakened.
The Fall of Catalonia: After the Ebro battle, Catalonia was conquered.
E. The End of the War (February – March 1939)
Negrín advocated a policy of resistance to the end and returned to Spain to continue the war. However, Western democracies had yielded to Hitler’s demands. The Spanish Republic’s hopes for international support faded.
The Casado Coup: Some Republican military and political figures sought a negotiated end to the conflict. Socialists and anarchists opposed the strong Communist influence in Negrín’s government. A group led by Casado staged a coup in March 1939, ousting Negrín and attempting to negotiate with Franco. The surrender followed, preventing many from escaping the Franco regime. The war ended on April 1, 1939.