Spanish Civil War: A Concise Overview
Military Uprising and Civil War (1936-1939)
Military Uprising
Emilio Mola orchestrated the coup, aiming for simultaneous uprisings across Spain. The strategy involved declaring martial law and detaining leftist leaders. The plan lacked clarity on whether to establish a military dictatorship or restore the monarchy. Royalists and CEDA favored the monarchy.
Calvo Sotelo’s assassination, in retaliation for Lieutenant Castillo’s death, solidified the uprising’s date. Initially planned for July 18th, it commenced in Melilla on the 17th and spread through Spanish Morocco. Franco assumed command of Moroccan troops.
Between July 18th and 20th, the uprising engulfed Spain. Queipo de Llano seized Seville, employing terror to quell resistance. Uprisings occurred in Cadiz, Cordoba, and Granada. Mola secured Navarra with Carlist support. Cabanellas controlled most of Aragon. The coup succeeded in Castile and Leon, Galicia, Extremadura, and parts of Mallorca.
In Madrid, rebels led by Fanjul occupied the Montaña barracks, which was later stormed by workers. Rebel indecision in Valencia allowed the government to retain control. In Barcelona, loyal forces and anarchist militias suppressed Goded’s rebellion.
The uprising failed in major cities but thrived in rural areas with large estates and strong Church influence. Supporters included conservative soldiers, landowners, monarchists, right-wing parties, Catholics, and some industrialists. Many were inspired by fascism. The rebels, calling themselves “nationals,” aimed to restore order and eliminate “reds” (anarchists, communists, socialists, and separatists).
Republic loyalists comprised urban and rural workers, landless peasants, and the petty bourgeoisie. They were mainly socialists, communists, and syndicalists. The middle class also supported the Republic but feared social revolution. The “Republicans” were divided among anarchists, socialists, and communists. They held the Bank of Spain’s reserves and major industrial areas.
The Spanish Civil War can be seen as a prelude to World War II, pitting democracy against fascism. It also represented a clash between dominant groups (upper-middle class, army, and church) and the labor movement. Individual allegiances were complex, influenced by family, friendships, and class.
The International Dimension of the Conflict
The Civil War erupted during a critical period in international relations, with democracies and totalitarian regimes vying for dominance. The fear of confrontation and some British support for Nazism led to inaction by democracies. The war was also framed as a clash between Western civilization and communism.
Global public opinion generally favored the Republic, except for conservatives who saw Franco as a bulwark against communism. Traditional Catholics, including Irish volunteers, sided with the rebels. The Pope eventually supported Franco.
France’s Popular Front government initially considered aid but didn’t intervene due to British neutrality, driven by appeasement of Nazi Germany. In August 1936, 27 countries, including Germany, Italy, and the USSR, signed a Non-Intervention Agreement. The US remained neutral.
The agreement was largely ineffective. Germany and Italy aided the rebels, alongside Portugal. The Republican government struggled to acquire arms, receiving aid from the USSR and Mexico by late 1937. Soviet aid (planes, tanks, fuel, advisors) was crucial but not as substantial as Italo-German support. Stalin’s intervention aimed to weaken the Nazi-Fascist axis. Largo Caballero sent Spain’s gold reserves to Moscow to pay for aid.
Volunteers from various backgrounds joined the International Brigades to fight fascism alongside the Republic. They included communists (e.g., Lincoln Brigade), anarchists, socialists, and democrats.
The rebels received Italian troops (Corpo di Truppe Volontaire), German air support (Condor Legion), and Portuguese assistance (“Viriato”). They secured loans for weapons and fuel, aided by Spanish capitalists and companies like Chevron, Shell, Ford, and General Motors.
Military Operations
Columns War, Progress Towards Madrid (October-December 1936)
Military operations began after the uprising. After crossing the Strait, Franco’s African troops linked with northern rebels, overcoming resistance in Badajoz. Instead of directly attacking Madrid, Franco relieved the siege of Toledo in September. By late October, he reached Madrid’s outskirts.
With Madrid’s fall seemingly imminent, general mobilization was declared. Citizens fortified the city, proclaiming slogans like “No Pasaran!” The government relocated to Valencia on November 6th, leaving Madrid under General Miaja’s command. Despite air raids, Madrid resisted, thanks to the International Brigades and Durruti’s column. Republican troops consisted of militia (e.g., “El Campesino,” Enrique Lister), party volunteers, and union members. In July 1936, the PCE formed the Fifth Regiment under Lister and Modesto, establishing a military cadre school.
Battle of Madrid
This phase saw the reorganization of both armies, with the creation of the People’s Army of the Republic and the disbanding of militias.
Rebels attempted to isolate Madrid, which relied on communication with Valencia. They launched one of history’s first massive bombings. Fierce battles raged on the Corunna Road, Casa de Campo, University City, and the Bridge of the French. The Battle of Jarama (February 1937) resulted in a stalemate. In the Battle of Guadalajara (March 1937), Italian fascist troops suffered a defeat against the Republican army.
Meanwhile, Queipo de Llano occupied Malaga, employing brutal repression and bombing civilians.
North Occupation (April-October 1937)
Franco shifted strategy, abandoning the Madrid offensive and focusing on the northern coast. This involved attrition warfare, systematic occupation, and the destruction of the Republican army. Key battles took place between April and October 1937 in Guipúzcoa, Vizcaya, Santander, and Asturias. Mola attacked Vizcaya in late March. On April 26th, Guernica was devastated by the Condor Legion. Bilbao fell in June due to rebel superiority. The Republic launched offensives in Brunete and Belchite to relieve pressure but failed to prevent Franco’s advance into Santander and Asturias. The industrial and mining region fell under rebel control, triggering an exodus of exiles. Franco’s navy gained access to the Mediterranean, disrupting Soviet arms shipments to the Republic.
Progress Towards the Mediterranean and the Battle of the Ebro (December 1937-November 1938)
In December 1937, the Republican army was restructured under General Rojo. The aim was to improve organization, integrating professional officers with militia leaders (Modesto, Lister, “El Campesino”) and the International Brigades. They briefly captured Teruel but were forced to abandon it. Franco launched an offensive in Aragon, reaching the Mediterranean at Castellón. By April, Republican territory was split into Catalonia and Valencia, which remained connected to Madrid.
The Battle of the Ebro was a pivotal event. It began on July 25th, 1938, with a Republican attack near Amposta. Franco deployed reinforcements, including German and Italian planes, halting the offensive. A counterattack forced the Republican army to retreat by early November, with Franco occupying southern Tarragona. The battle ended on November 16th, severely depleting the Republican army.
Franco then targeted Catalonia. On January 26th, he entered Barcelona unopposed. After Girona’s fall, thousands of refugees, including the Republican government (Azaña, Negrín, Companys), fled to France. By early February 1939, the war’s outcome was clear.
End of the War
In February, the Republic controlled only the Central Zone, from Madrid to Valencia and Almería. Although Prime Minister Negrín, supported by communists, wanted to continue fighting, major battles ceased. Britain and France recognized Franco’s government, and Azaña resigned.
In early March, Colonel Casado, Madrid’s defense chief, led an uprising against the Republican government, hoping to negotiate surrender amid rumors of a communist takeover. Supported by some socialists, Besteiro, and the UGT, he formed a Defense Council under General Miaja, seeking an “honorable peace” based on Franco’s “generosity.” Franco demanded unconditional surrender. On March 28th, his troops entered Madrid unopposed.
In the following days, Franco occupied the remaining Mediterranean area. Resistance by communist troops couldn’t prevent the fall of Albacete, Alicante, and Valencia. On April 1st, Franco signed the last war bulletin in Burgos: “Today, the Red Army, captive and disarmed, has achieved its final military objectives. The war is over.”
The Republican Side
The military uprising aimed to justify claims that the Popular Front was orchestrating a communist revolution, led by unions, to abolish private property, religion, and the state, imposing a Soviet-style system. These claims were unfounded, although disorder, strikes, and political clashes were prevalent on both sides. The uprising itself triggered a collectivist social revolution, primarily led by anarcho-syndicalists (CNT and FAI). The socialist UGT participated in collectivizing land and industries, while the PCE and PSOE initially remained on the sidelines and later opposed it.
The revolution was particularly strong in Catalonia, where the Central Committee of Antifascist Militias spearheaded it. This committee collaborated with political parties to reconstitute the Generalitat, with Companys as president and representation from unions and workers’ parties.
Collectivism was a significant aspect. Industry was collectivized in Catalonia by decree in October 1936. Agricultural collectivization spread through Aragon, Valencia, La Mancha, and Andalusia. Essential war services, like transport, food supply, and arms factories, were also collectivized through unions.
The revolution’s rapid spread led to the formation of boards, councils, and committees to impose a revolutionary order. In the early months, spontaneous violence targeted perceived “rebels,” known as the “Red Terror.” The Church, bourgeoisie, landowners, affluent individuals, Catholics, etc., faced persecution, including looting, church burnings, arrests, killings, and property seizures by parties or unions. Unscrupulous individuals exploited the situation. Many persecuted individuals hid, fled to rebel-held areas, or went abroad.
Examples include the assault on the Modelo Prison by militants, resulting in the deaths of military personnel and right-wing politicians. More significant were the “paseos” (prisoner extrajudicial killings) and transfers to Paracuellos del Jarama and Torrejón de Ardoz for execution. This violence damaged the Republic’s international image. The government was unable to stop it.