Spanish Civil War: Causes, Factions, and International Impact
Military Uprising & Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)
The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) tragically ended hopes for the political and social modernization sought by the Second Republic. Spain was divided into two warring factions: the Nationalists and the Republicans. Unresolved social, religious, and regional autonomy issues led the conservative military faction to rebel against the Republic. This conflict had international implications, foreshadowing World War II, and pitted democratic forces against rising totalitarian powers in Europe. The war left Spain devastated, facing postwar shortages and a dictatorial regime.
I. The Conspiracy and the Nationalist Uprising
Since the Republic’s proclamation, and especially after the leftist Popular Front’s victory, a democratic revolution threatened the interests of traditionally dominant forces: the agricultural and financial oligarchy, the Church, and the Army (which believed it was acting to preserve Spain’s unity, social order, property, and religion). The conspiracy against the Republic was supported by monarchists, Carlists, Falangists (with armed militias), CEDA members, Catholic landowners, big banks, industrialists, and a significant group of soldiers (Mola, Sanjurjo, Franco, etc.) organized in the Spanish Military Union. General Mola was the strategist and operation leader. General Sanjurjo was initially designated to lead the military junta after the coup but died in an accident, leading to Franco taking command of the rebels. The military coup was triggered by the murder of a socialist Assault Guard officer, Lieutenant Castillo, on July 12th, followed by the retaliatory kidnapping and murder of José Calvo Sotelo. On July 17, 1936, the military rebellion began in Melilla and spread to Ceuta. On July 18th, Franco joined the rebellion from the Canary Islands, ordering all Spanish garrisons to oppose the government, then flew to the Spanish Protectorate of Morocco to take charge of the Army of Africa (*). By July 18th, the insurgents had triumphed throughout the Spanish Protectorate in Morocco, but on the peninsula, only Cadiz and Seville, controlled by Queipo de Llano, had joined. The uprising spread on July 19th, succeeding in Pamplona, Oviedo, Granada, etc., but failing in major cities like Madrid and Barcelona. Prime Minister Quiroga refused to arm workers’ organizations to confront the military rebels and resigned. President Azaña commissioned Martinez Barrio to form a new government, but he immediately resigned, passing command to José Giral, who ordered the immediate distribution of arms to Popular Front organizations and trade unions.
II. The Two Spains
It was clear the coup had failed, dividing the army, territory, and resources. By July 1936, neither side (Republicans, called “reds” by the rebels, and the “Nationalists”) seemed decisively stronger. The rebels controlled northern Castilla y León, Galicia, Navarre, much of Aragon and Andalusia, the Balearic Islands, and the North African protectorate. The Republic retained Cantabria, the Basque Country, the Mediterranean basin from Catalonia to Malaga, Castile-La Mancha, Madrid, Extremadura, and eastern Andalusia.
Republican Spain
On the Republican side, Giral’s government was weak. Armed labor organizations controlled the streets, acting autonomously through Revolutionary Boards and Councils, initiating repression (imprisonment, torture, executions) against those not aligned with the Republic. Militarily, they had most of the air force and navy, major artillery parks, and arms factories. Their military organization was replaced by popular militias created by leftist parties and trade unions. Assault Guards and many Carabineros and Civil Guards remained loyal to the Republic. Control: They held industrial centers, urban areas, mines, and significant financial resources, including the Bank of Spain’s gold reserves.
Nationalist Spain
To unify and coordinate rebel troops, the National Defense Board was established in Burgos. The board appointed Franco generalissimo and head of state, granting him full powers. One of Franco’s first decisions was to form a Technical Board of the State, composed of soldiers acting as traditional ministries. The ministries were based in Burgos, while Franco’s headquarters was in Salamanca. Militarily: They had most of the officers and half the army, reinforced by the Army of Africa. Control: They held the main cereal-producing area. The Unification Decree merged the Carlist Traditionalist Communion and the Spanish Falange JONS into the Traditionalist Spanish Falange and JONS, becoming the sole party in Nationalist Spain (similar to Italy and Germany). Nationalists also carried out harsh repression against leftists and Republican supporters.
III. The International Dimension of the Conflict
The civil war deeply divided international governments and public opinion. Some viewed the rebels as fighting against Communism, while others saw the Republicans as battling Fascism. The war exacerbated tensions and political instability in Europe, dominated by ideological and political confrontations: 1. Fascist forces (Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy); 2. Parliamentary democracies (Britain and France); 3. Soviet Communism.
The Non-Intervention Committee
France and Britain pursued neutrality, promoting a policy of appeasement towards fascism. This led to the creation of the Non-Intervention Committee based in London. The intention was to ensure non-intervention in Spanish affairs and prevent the conflict from internationalizing through arms sales and foreign military support. The aim was to maintain neutrality, avoid disrupting the fragile balance between democratic and fascist regimes, and avert the danger of war in Europe given Hitler’s growing expansionist militarism. Many countries joined this non-intervention agreement, pledging not to sell arms or military supplies to Spain. The Committee would enforce border closures and an arms embargo, but Germany, Italy, and Portugal continued to aid the rebels, while the USSR supported the Republicans. France allowed the transfer of military equipment despite the agreement. The USA did not sign the non-intervention pact but passed a law preventing the export of war materials to Spain. However, American companies were allowed to sell supplies to Franco’s forces.