Spanish Civil War: Causes, Key Battles, and Lasting Impact
The Spanish Civil War
General Emilio Mola initiated the coup that led to the Spanish Civil War. Enlisting the Navarrese Carlists, he dismissed immediate action in Madrid, opting instead for a simultaneous uprising across different garrisons. His initial plan for a swift takeover proved unsuccessful.
The original idea to dethrone the Popular Front government evolved into a firm intention to topple the Republic. This goal was not fully achieved, and what began as a military coup transformed into a protracted and bloody civil war.
The uprising commenced on July 17, 1936, in Spanish Morocco, where General Franco quickly assumed command. By July 18, the revolt had spread throughout the Iberian Peninsula. Conservative regions such as Navarre, Castile-Leon, and Galicia supported the uprising. In Andalusia, despite its leftist majority, Queipo de Llano seized power in Seville, Cordoba, and Granada, while Malaga, Almeria, and Jaen remained Republican. The coup failed in Madrid and Barcelona. In the capital, militias were armed, General Joaquin Fanjul was defeated at the Mountain Barracks, and General Manuel Goded lacked the support of the Civil Guard. The Basque Country and the Levantine region sided with the Republicans.
The more industrialized and agricultural regions of Spain remained Republican, while the Nationalist (right-wing) forces triumphed in the conservative, rural areas. The war lasted for three years.
Initially, the rebels aimed to capture Madrid. Their army advanced using columns, traveling on foot or by truck. This operation was facilitated by Republican disarray and the absence of a formal army, which was replaced by militias led by figures like the anarchist Buenaventura Durruti. However, the rebel side faced challenges, including resource shortages in the north. Mola also faced the problem that the bulk of the army was in Africa. Italian aid and German air support were crucial in enabling their passage through the Strait of Gibraltar.
Columns of the regular Legion, commanded by Colonel Juan Yagüe, captured Badajoz and Extremadura. However, they diverted from Talavera to relieve the siege of the Alcázar of Toledo, defended by Colonel Jose Moscardo. This allowed Republican generals, such as Miaja and Vicente Rojo, to halt General Varela’s columns outside Madrid. The front stabilized at the city’s gates, marked by Dolores Ibárruri’s famous cry: “¡No Pasarán!” (They shall not pass!).
Small-scale movements evolved into major offensives and counter-offensives, transforming the war into a modern conflict. Aviation became a key weapon, leading to the concept of “total war” and intensified “psychological warfare.” During Franco’s offensive on Madrid in November 1936, significant battles occurred at Jarama, with intense dogfights, and Guadalajara, where Italian forces sent by Mussolini suffered a major defeat at the hands of the International Brigades. Franco abandoned the idea of capturing Madrid and focused on securing the north’s energy resources and industrial capacity, believing it was the only way to win the war.
The offensive began in May with the breaching of Biscay’s “Iron Belt,” a fortified line around Bilbao. As Franco’s army advanced towards Santander, Republican General Miaja launched the Brunete counteroffensive, which failed. Following the collapse of the northern front, the Nationalists planned a march towards the Mediterranean to bisect the Republican zone, reaching the sea at Vinaròs.
To counter Franco’s offensive, the Republic launched a major effort in the summer of 1938, initiating the Battle of the Ebro. Republican General Enrique Lister aimed to encircle the enemy army, but the Nationalists reacted and defeated the Republicans in a grueling war of attrition. In January 1939, Nationalist forces captured Barcelona. Republican Spain was reduced to parts of the southern plateau and the Levantine coast up to Almeria. Faced with this reality, a defense council was formed in Madrid, headed by…