Spanish Civil War: Causes, Key Events, and Aftermath
The Spanish Civil War
The Evolution of Republican Spain
The military uprising was justified on the grounds that the Republic, governed by the Popular Front, was preparing a communist revolution. This revolution was purported to eliminate private property, religion, and the democratic state to impose a Soviet-style dictatorship. These claims were unfounded. In the spring of 1936, there was no revolution in progress, although there was significant disorder (strikes, bombings, land occupation, and political confrontations) caused by both the right and the left.
It was the military uprising itself, which forced the Republican government to arm the people, that resulted in a revolutionary process, primarily carried out by anarchists backed by the socialist union UGT. However, both the PSOE and the PC remained outside this collectivist revolution, which proposed changing the property system and dismantling state power, and later actively opposed it.
During the first three months of the war, the Republican government lost control. Boards, councils, and committees were set up to exercise power in many cities and towns. A violent anti-clerical movement developed, resulting in the destruction of churches and religious objects, and the murder of thousands of religious figures, mostly by uncontrolled anarchist groups.
The most significant element of the social revolution was collectivism. The goal was to convert agricultural and industrial property into collective ownership. In Catalonia, where anarchist influence was strong, a government decree collectivized industries (October 1936). Agricultural collectives spread widely in Aragon, Valencia, La Mancha, and Andalusia. Many essential services (transport, communications, food supplies, weapons factories, etc.) operated under collectivized management through unions at the war’s beginning. Over time, Republican governments regained control and reversed many of these revolutionary measures.
At the time of the uprising, Casares Quiroga’s government resigned. Martínez Barrio formed a new government and attempted to negotiate with the rebels. When this failed, he was quickly replaced by Giral, who armed the people to defend the Republic. In August, he ordered the creation of volunteer battalions led by loyal officers.
August was critical for the Republicans due to the rebels’ steady advance. A strong government was needed, headed by someone who could unite all Republican forces. Largo Caballero (secretary general of the UGT) was chosen and formed a government in September, including Republicans, socialists, communists, and even four anarchist ministers. One of his first actions was moving the government to Valencia due to the imminent attack on Madrid by the Army of Africa.
Largo Caballero’s government sought to create a “great anti-fascist alliance,” restore state power, and direct the war with renewed energy by militarizing party militias and creating a People’s Army. However, dissensions soon arose. Anarchists resisted giving up collectivization and integrating their militias into the regular army.
In May 1937, an armed confrontation erupted in Barcelona between the Communists and Republican parties, who prioritized winning the war over revolution, and the anarchists and the POUM, who advocated simultaneous social revolution. The anarchists were defeated, and the POUM was dissolved under pressure from the Soviet Union. Some POUM leaders, like Andrés Nin, were arrested and disappeared. These events weakened Largo Caballero, and the Communists, who had significant influence due to Stalin’s aid, demanded his resignation. He resigned, and a new socialist government was formed under Negrín.
Negrín continued the war effort, relying on the Communists. After 1938, conditions in Republican territory deteriorated drastically. Food and supplies were scarce, military setbacks were continuous, and war-weariness spread. Negrín attempted to negotiate with the rebels, proposing the departure of foreign troops, elections, and no reprisals against Republic defenders. Franco refused. Negrín continued resistance, hoping for international intervention. However, Colonel Casado surrendered Madrid, and the Republic lost the war. Franco declared victory on April 1, 1939. Five months later, World War II began.
The Birth of the Francoist State
The groups supporting the uprising lacked a unified project and accepted the army’s leadership in organizing the new state. The rebels formed the National Defense Board in Burgos, chaired by General Miguel Cabanellas. The Board banned all political parties and halted land reform. General Sanjurjo, considered the uprising’s leader, died in a plane crash. When the coup became a civil war, a new leader was needed.
Francisco Franco gained support due to his international recognition, command of the Army of Africa, and popularity after relieving the siege of Toledo. On September 30, he was elected leader of the uprising. In October, a decree named him “Head of State and Generalissimo of the Spanish Armies.” The Defense Board was abolished, and Franco’s headquarters moved to Salamanca.
The rebels needed political cohesion. Inspired by fascist Italy and Germany, they adopted a one-party model. In April 1937, Franco’s Decree of Unification created the Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS, merging the Falange and Carlists. Franco led this single party. The Church supported Franco, comparing the war to a “National Crusade.” Some Carlists and Falangists who opposed unification were exiled or imprisoned.
In January 1938, Franco formed his first government in Burgos, representing the regime’s forces: Catholics, Carlists, Falangists, and monarchists. Franco was Prime Minister and Head of State, becoming known as “Caudillo of Spain.”
This government’s laws shaped the Francoist state. The Labor Law (1938) established vertical unionism, a state-controlled organization of employers and employees, and outlawed strikes. A press law established censorship. Republican laws relating to the Church were repealed, civil marriage and divorce were abolished, religious instruction was reinstated, and the state paid clergy salaries. The Political Responsibility Act (1939) empowered courts to punish those who worked for leftist parties (retroactive to February 1936).
By the war’s end, Franco’s power was absolute. His figure was glorified, beginning almost forty years of his rule.
Asturias in the Civil War
When news of the uprising reached Asturias, workers’ forces supported the Republic. Colonel Aranda, feigning loyalty, went to Madrid with miners and then revolted against the government in Oviedo. In Gijón, Colonel Pinilla also revolted but was defeated by Republican forces. The siege of Oviedo caused extensive damage, but the city held out until Nationalist troops arrived from Galicia.
After the fall of Bilbao and Santander, Asturias was isolated. Despite resistance, Republican forces surrendered on October 21, 1937. Gijón fell, and many attempted to flee by sea, with few succeeding. During the war, the Council of Asturias and León acted on behalf of the Republic, with members of the PSOE, PCE, and CNT sharing responsibilities. Revolutionary actions included seizing rebel property, collectivizing industries, and canceling peasant debts. The Council was unable to prevent numerous right-wing reprisals. The Nationalist victory led to purges, imprisonments, and executions of those deemed disloyal, initiating a long post-war period.