Spanish Civil War: From Caballero to Franco
The Caballero Government (September 1936 – May 1937)
In late summer 1936, Republican forces recognized the need for anti-fascist unity and a government capable of consolidating forces to win the war. Largo Caballero formed a government comprised of Republicans, Socialists, and Communists. However, military setbacks reignited conflict within the Republican forces, weakening Caballero’s government. The May 1937 events in Barcelona, resulting in over 200 deaths, led to Caballero’s resignation.
President Manuel Azaña then commissioned Juan Negrin to form a new Socialist government. The capital, previously moved from Madrid to Valencia, was shifted to Barcelona due to the difficulty of halting Franco’s advancing troops. The government sought a negotiated solution, with Negrin proposing the Thirteen Points program in April 1938. This program proposed a cessation of hostilities, the continuation of the Republic, and democratic elections. However, Franco’s side rejected the proposal.
In early March, Azaña resigned as president in Paris. In July, the Burgos National Defense Board, composed of military figures like Mola and Franco and chaired by General Miguel Cabanellas, was established. This board aimed to govern occupied territory, and its initial actions included suppressing other political parties and suspending the Constitution.
General Francisco Franco increasingly led the war effort as other coup leaders diminished in influence. On October 1, 1936, a decree appointed Franco as head of state and Generalissimo of the Spanish armies. By January 1938, he became the leader of Spain, establishing a personal, single-party regime under the Traditionalist Spanish Falange de las JONS. This regime, while not strictly fascist due to its lack of a specific ideology, embraced conservatism and Catholicism, drawing inspiration from fascist models in Germany and Italy.
Religious, political, and press freedoms were suppressed, and the Labour Law was passed, banning strikes and worker demands. The construction of the Francoist state was marked by extreme violence, including the killing of prominent figures like Federico García Lorca, to instill terror and prevent resistance.
Stages of the War
The Advance on Madrid and Battles Around the Capital
To reach Madrid, rebel forces advanced through Extremadura, diverting to Toledo to liberate the Alcázar and its hostage, Colonel Moscardó. This diversion allowed Republicans to organize Madrid’s defense under Generals Vicente Rojo and José Miaja, along with the International Brigades and an anarchist column from Barcelona led by Buenaventura Durruti. Madrid’s resistance marked the end of the war’s initial phase, characterized by militia columns.
The rebels’ attempt to enter the capital failed, and they were defeated in the battles of Jarama and Guadalajara.
The Occupation of the North (1937)
The Battle of the North saw the bombing of Guernica in April, followed by the capture of Bilbao and its industrial and mining areas in June. Republican offensives failed to prevent the fall of Santander and Asturias.
Advance Towards the Mediterranean (Late 1937)
Republicans occupied Teruel in November 1937, but Franco’s forces retook it in February 1938 and launched the Aragon campaign, reaching the Mediterranean through Castellón in April. This divided Republican territory, isolating Catalonia.
The Battle of the Ebro and the Occupation of Catalonia (1938)
The Battle of the Ebro began with a Republican attack in 1938. The fall of Girona led to thousands of refugees fleeing to France, including the Republican government, Negrín, Azaña, members of the Cortes, the Catalan government, and the Basque government.
The End of the War (1939)
By February 1939, the Republic held only the central zone (Madrid-La Mancha and Almería-Valencia). Negrín returned from France for a final attempt to reorganize the Republican army. Franco’s troops entered Madrid unopposed on March 28. On April 1, Franco signed the last war communiqué in Burgos.