Spanish Civil War: From Coup to Conflict
Conspiracy and Military Revolt
The military conspiracy stemmed from the Popular Front’s electoral victory in February 1936, following earlier attempts like the Sanjurjada and movements by Goded, Fanjul, and Franco. The July 1936 coup was orchestrated by disgruntled military personnel, with General Emilio Mola as the chief strategist, operating from Pamplona. General Sanjurjo, intended to lead the post-coup military directory, died in a plane crash. General Franco, the eventual rebel leader, joined the conspiracy late. The conspirators aimed to establish an authoritarian power, suspending constitutional freedoms. They envisioned a swift coup lasting days, not a protracted civil war, anticipating minimal resistance. The Second Republic’s government, led by Casares Quiroga, failed to prevent the escalating conflict. The Civil War resulted from a poorly executed coup and a weak government.
1936 Coup
The uprising began on July 17, 1936, in Morocco, home to Spain’s largest and best army, comprising Legionnaires and native troops. Franco, after securing the Canary Islands, moved to Morocco to command the rebellion. Seville and Cadiz joined the uprising between July 18 and 19, crucial for landing troops from North Africa. The government-loyal areas were divided: the Cantabrian coast and Basque Country (excluding Álava), and the central and Mediterranean regions. Assault guards, military units, the Civil Guard, the naval fleet, and aviation remained loyal to the Republic. The UGT and CNT’s stance was critical to the republican forces’ success.
War Development
The War of Columns and March Toward Madrid
This phase spanned from July to November 1936, involving military columns on both sides (regular army for rebels, militia for Republicans). Republican militia received support from military experts like Joseph Miaja and Vicente Rojo. Capturing Madrid became the insurgents’ primary goal. Mola’s columns faced unexpected militia resistance north of the Central System. Franco and Yagüe’s troops advanced toward Madrid from the south, aided by Hitler and Mussolini’s aviation and navy, crossing the Strait and advancing through Extremadura unimpeded. General Mola’s capture of Irún was crucial, cutting off the Republican army’s access to the French border and preventing reinforcements.
Battle of Madrid
The conflict transitioned into a war of attrition due to Madrid’s unexpected resilience, despite being bombed and surrounded, except for the Valencia road. The Republican government relocated to Valencia, anticipating Madrid’s fall. Madrileños perceived this as abandonment. A makeshift Defence Board led the resistance, receiving arms, reinforcements from the Soviet Union, and foreign volunteers from the International Brigades. Failing to swiftly capture Madrid, Franco launched an encircling operation, resulting in three battles: the road to La Coruña, cutting Madrid’s communication with the northwest; the Jarama River, attacking the road to Valencia from the south; and Guadalajara, where the rebel army and its Italian allies were defeated northeast of Madrid.
Battle of Catalonia and the Ebro
This stage was decisive. Franco shifted his focus from Madrid, launching an attack (Battle of Aragon) along the Aragon front to reach the Mediterranean and divide the Republican zone. The Republican Army, under Vicente Rojo and Juan Negrín, launched a counteroffensive across the Ebro River (Battle of the Ebro), aiming to prolong the conflict, anticipating a European confrontation between Hitler and the democracies. The Battle of the Ebro extended until the end of the year, followed by the conquest of Catalonia.