Spanish Civil War: From Coup to Totalitarian State
1) The Outbreak of the Civil War
From Coup to Civil War
The military uprising began in the Spanish possessions in North Africa (Melilla) on July 17, 1936. Colonel Yagüe, head of the legion, took up arms against the Republic. The next day, it extended to the Peninsula, and Franco, who had already secured the triumph of the insurrection in the Canary Islands, went to the Peninsula leading the Army of Africa. Its proponents justified the need for action to end a government they considered illegitimate and guilty of the existing social chaos, a supposed “bolshevization” of Spain, and the collapse of national unity. This action masked a long-standing conspiracy against the system.
The Failure of the Insurrection in Catalonia
The government of Catalonia directed the police against the rebels, while the mobilization of leftist parties and unions in the streets, especially the workers, worked to defeat the rebellion. Goded surrendered.
The Consolidation of Camps
The insurgents were led by soldiers who had the support of the upper classes and the more conservative sectors: monarchists, right-wing Catholic groups, Falange, and traditionalists who had opposed the reforms of the Republic. Those loyal to the Republic were constituted by the working classes: urban workers, landless peasants, and the petty bourgeoisie. Most were members or supporters of socialist, communist, or anarcho-syndicalist organizations. They were labeled with the derogatory term “reds” by the right.
2) The Republican Area: The Revolution Contained
In the Republican area, the war led to a complex situation. On the one hand, the leftist forces saw the opportunity to fulfill their desire for social revolution. On the other hand, they had to concentrate all their efforts on winning the war because defeat meant the end of all hope of social change.
The Outbreak of the Social Revolution
In the territory that remained loyal to the Republic, the military uprising led to a widespread revolutionary climate. To stop the insurgency, the government of José Giral decided to deliver arms to the militias of unions and parties, disbanding the traditional army and police forces. Consequently, state power collapsed, and a large number of revolutionary organizations emerged. The situation, however, worsened from August onwards due to the advancing fascist troops, who questioned the dissolution of the republican army and the military capability of the militias. In Catalonia, there was a spontaneous popular response against anything that could be related to the rebels. The Church, the bourgeoisie, landowners, the wealthy classes, Catholics, etc., were subject to uncontrolled persecution during the first weeks.
A War Economy: Collectivization
One of the most important changes was the collectivization of companies’ resources, meaning companies passed into the hands of workers, who became responsible for their functioning.
The Government of Largo Caballero (September 1936 – May 1937)
The new government was led by Francisco Largo Caballero, who wanted to win the war by reorganizing the state, militarizing the militias, and forming the People’s Army. To win the war, unity of action was necessary; therefore, he insisted that the objectives of the revolution be left for later and that the only legitimate republican institutions be recognized.
Government Action: Social and Cultural Democratization
The war acted as a catalyst and represented a deepening of democratization:
- In health, the possibility of artificial pregnancy interruption was approved, and campaigns were organized to eradicate prostitution.
- Regarding Catalan teaching, the Unified Board of the New School (CENU) was created to promote a free and secular school with coeducation and Catalan. It coordinated from nursery school to university.
- The Heritage Service of Historic, Artistic, and Scientific Management of Catalonia was created to preserve buildings, artworks, and collections, and an effective preventive policy was launched with the adoption of security measures.
The Turn of Events in May 1937
A discrepancy that significantly affected the Republican side was the controversy between the two communist parties of the era: the United Socialist Party of Catalonia (PSUC) and the Workers’ Party of Marxist Unification (POUM).
The Negrín Government (May 1937 – March 1939)
As Caballero did not accept this, he was forced to resign. On May 17, a new government was formed, headed by Juan Negrín, with support from the PSOE and the PCE, but without the anarchists. One of the government’s first actions was to dissolve the POUM.
3) The Insurgent Area: The Creation of a Totalitarian State
Franco, Caudillo of Spain
The accidental death of General Sanjurjo in Lisbon on July 20 raised issues of leadership. On July 24, 1936, the Board of National Defense was created in Madrid, which “assumed all State authorities” and was headed by General Miguel Cabanellas to coordinate the military command. In practice, it became an administrative and political government body alternative to the republican legality. It banned political parties and freedoms, suspended the Constitution, and ordered the stoppage of agrarian reform.
Systematic Repression
The building of this new state was accompanied by extreme violence, which involved the settlement of the territories conquered by Franco’s army. As the war prolonged and the new order was imposed, the repression took on a systematic, planned, and comprehensive character, attempting to punish the Republicans to “purify” society and consolidate “Nueva España,” according to Franco’s words.
Franco’s Catalans
Few Catalans joined the nationalist side. It is estimated that between 50,000 and 60,000 people moved to the “national” area, a third of whom joined the Falange militia. They were Catholics, Carlists, Falangists, and also men from the conservative Catalan right-wing, especially the League. Possibly the most significant person was Francesc Cambó. The Catalans were among the victors of the war.
4) Military Operations
The Battle for Madrid (July 1936-1937)
The war began as a confrontation between two armies. The military organization had been dissolved where the insurgency had failed and was replaced by a revolutionary organization, the militia. Franco, the highest military commander of the “national” side from October 1, launched the occupation of Toledo, and by the end of the month, he was at the gates of Madrid. From October 29, the battle of Madrid mobilized a population that, with the cry of “No Pasarán!” (“They shall not pass!”), endured the bombings of the German Condor Legion and confronted the insurgents. The Republican government moved to Valencia on November 6 and left the city in the hands of a board. The arrival of the International Brigades and the Durruti Column helped the defense to the point that, in December, Franco resigned himself to not taking Madrid but decided to isolate it from the rest of the Republic.
The Occupation of the North (April-October 1937)
Franco’s strategy to isolate Madrid led to the battles of Jarama (February 1937), with an uncertain outcome, and Guadalajara (March 1937), in which the Republican triumph weakened the pressure on the capital. Franco then moved the scene of war to the North and led Mola’s attack on Biscay at the end of March. Shortly thereafter, on April 26, Guernica was destroyed by the Nazi aviation under Franco’s command.
The Arrival in the Mediterranean (November 1937 – June 1938)
On March 9, 1938, Franco’s troops began the campaign of Aragon, which represented the displacement of the war front to Catalonia. On April 3, Lleida and Valdo were occupied, and soon after, Balaguer, Tremp, Camarasa, and the hydroelectric power stations in the Pyrenees. The offensive continued south, reaching the Mediterranean, with Vinaròs and Valencia as new targets. The Republic was split into two areas.
The Occupation of Catalonia (July 1938 – February 1939)
The Battle of the Ebro was the last offensive led by the Republican army. It attempted to stop the fascist attack on Valencia and save time, hoping that World War II would precipitate.
The End of the War (February – April 1939)
On March 5, 1939, General Casado led a coup in Madrid with the support of socialists, republicans, and anarchists and tried to negotiate with the French, but it was too late; they imposed surrender without negotiation. On March 28, 1939, Franco’s army entered Madrid, and on April 1, the caudillo signed the last war statement in Madrid.