Spanish Civil War: Key Battles & Political Developments
The Battles of Jarama and Guadalajara
After failing to take Madrid directly, Franco attempted to encircle the capital. This led to the Battle of Jarama, one of the bloodiest of the conflict, and the Battle of Guadalajara, where Italian troops sent by Mussolini were defeated. Nationalists took Malaga, where harsh repression followed.
The Northern Campaign
From spring 1937 onward, Nationalist troops gained control of the isolated Republican North. One by one, the Basque Country, Cantabria, and Asturias fell to Franco. During this campaign, the German Condor Legion bombed Guernica, a city lacking military significance. During the Basque campaign, Mola, Franco’s main rival for leadership, died in an air crash. Attempting to divert Nationalist forces, Republicans launched an offensive in Belchite, Aragón, which failed. Nationalists secured control of the entire North. This had severe consequences for the Republic, losing vital coal mines and iron industries, allowing Franco to concentrate forces in the South.
From Teruel to the Ebro Battle
In December 1937, Republicans launched an offensive in Teruel, hampered by harsh weather and ultimately failing. After securing Teruel, Franco launched a general attack in Aragón, reaching Vinaroz on the Mediterranean in April 1938, dividing Republican territory. The Battle of the Ebro in 1938, one of the war’s bloodiest, depleted Republican reserves and morale.
The End of the War
The offensive against Catalonia marked the beginning of the end. After taking Barcelona, Franco’s troops reached the French border in 1939, preceded by a massive exodus of over half a million people to French concentration camps. As defeat loomed, Republican divisions widened. Negrín’s government, backed by communists and some socialists, favored continued resistance, hoping the impending European war would bring Allied support. Colonel Casado, seeking a negotiated surrender, launched a coup against Negrín. Franco demanded unconditional surrender, and the war ended on April 1, 1939.
The Republican Zone
The failed coup sparked a social revolution. Committees of workers’ parties and unions controlled essential elements of the economy, while the government’s role diminished. Land seizures occurred, with large estates, and sometimes smaller ones, socialized. Areas with anarchist influence saw total collectivization. In September 1936, a unity government formed under socialist Largo Caballero, including Catalan and Basque nationalists. Later, four anarchists joined, including Federica Montseny, Spain’s first female minister. The government struggled to regain control and centralize power due to conflicts between committees, mainly anarchists and socialists, and autonomous governments. The Basques supported the Republic after their statute was approved, with José Antonio Agirre as the first Lehendakari. The CNT-FAI and POUM pursued collectivization, aiming to continue work alongside revolution. The PSOE and PCE prioritized order and centralization before revolution. Internal dissent peaked in May 1937 when the Generalitat tried to control the CNT-held Telefónica, leading to unrest in Barcelona and Largo Caballero’s resignation. Negrín’s new government saw increased communist influence. The Stalinist-Trotskyist conflict played out in Spain, with the POUM outlawed and its leader, Nin, disappearing. Despite being late to change the war’s course, greater economic centralization and a Popular Army replaced militias. From March 1938, the Republican zone was divided. While Negrín’s government advocated continued fighting, others sought a negotiated surrender. International politics played a role: after the Munich Pact, International Brigades left, and Soviet aid decreased. As defeat seemed inevitable, Colonel Casado’s coup aimed for negotiation, but Franco refused any conditions.
The National Zone
The death of Sanjurjo left the insurrection without a clear leader. When the insurgents met in Burgos they agreed the creation of a National Defence Junta that acted as provisional