Spanish Civil War: Organization, Revolution, and International Impact
The Organization of the War
Chaos, Fragmentation, and Collapse of Authority
The Republican government, led by Quiroga, was dismantled by the rebel coup, leaving them isolated. Governmental authority collapsed, with the army and police unable to establish centralized control. Territorial officials, administrative officers, and local government ministries disappeared, creating confusion and dissolution. Potential political parties and worker unions, responsible for the general strike—the first step in mobilizing against the military coup—were left powerless.
Early Measures and Political Violence
Casares’ initial measures were timid, focusing on decrees related to the coup’s military units. On July 19th, Azaria appointed José Giralt as the new prime minister. However, the authorities couldn’t even control Madrid. Giralt approved arms for unions and popular groups. The government’s collapse facilitated political violence, including raids and looting, by the popular classes in the early months of the war. Interclass consensus became difficult as the coup shattered the Popular Front alliance between the middle and working classes, resulting in an unprecedented crisis.
Regional Mobilization and the Rise of Militias
The weakened central state struggled to maintain communication and understand the situation. Popular sectors mobilized through unions and parties, particularly in historical communities like Catalonia and the Basque Country. The PSOE and JSU (Unified Socialist Youth), dominated by communists, played a significant role in organizing the war effort. The PCE and JSU formed the MAOC (Antifascist Worker and Peasant Militias) and the Fifth Regiment, modeled after a people’s army.
Largo Caballero’s Government and the Militarization of Militias
In September, Azaria appointed Francisco Largo Caballero to lead a new Republican coalition government. Caballero was chosen for his strong relationships with leftist parties and unions. He supported the militarization of militias through decrees in October, limiting the collective resources of land and industries. Municipal governments, which had disappeared after the coup, were formally reset, leading to conflicts with the more visible popular committees.
CNT’s Entry into Government and the Move to Valencia
In late September, the CNT joined the Catalan government, a maneuver that failed to halt the coup. CNT members, grateful for the government’s support, were reluctant to create a parallel government. In November, two CNT members, García Oliver and Federica Montseny, joined the central government. On November 6th, the government relocated to Valencia, anticipating Madrid’s imminent fall to rebel forces. Madrid remained under the protection of Miaja, who organized the capital’s resistance. Lieutenant Colonel Vicente Rojo developed defense plans for Madrid, including the offensive and the Battle of the Ebro.
Negrín’s Government and the May 1937 Events
Following the May 1937 events in Barcelona, Largo Caballero resigned and was replaced by Juan Negrín of the Socialist Party. These events, centered around the Telefónica building in Plaza Catalunya, involved clashes within Republican forces. The CNT and POUM, present in the building, argued that winning the war required a simultaneous revolution. Communists, the PSUC, ERC, and others opposed this, prioritizing victory. Underlying tensions included the CNT’s desire for greater control without sharing power and the communists’ pursuit of power, driven by orders to suppress Trotskyists. The communists accused Trotskyists of treachery and anarchists of collaborating with the rebel army. The May events resulted in a communist and ERC victory, with Trotskyists pursued and Andreu Nin killed. Anarchists and POUM members were tortured, creating divisions within the Republican side.
Negrín’s Policies and the Advance of Rebel Forces
Negrín aimed to reduce reliance on international allies, particularly the USSR, and restore constitutional guarantees. Meanwhile, the rebel army advanced, forcing people to flee. Refugees swelled the population, straining food distribution in wartime. Bombings, especially by the Italian air force in Catalonia, caused significant destruction. Bomb shelters were built, including the use of Barcelona’s subway tunnels, and alarm systems were implemented. Some exiled to England, applying their techniques in London during World War II.
Exile and Refugee Camps
Many, especially women and children, were exiled, sometimes facing bombing raids during their escape. The exile experience was traumatic. Refugee camps in France offered terrible conditions. During World War II, many were forced to join the French army, the Resistance, or return to Spain, facing execution or concentration camps.
The Revolution, Agricultural Collectivization, and Industrialization
Following the coup, a revolution occurred in anarchist-controlled areas, particularly in Aragon and Valencia. A parallel government emerged, challenging the central government and the Catalan government. In Catalonia and Aragon, this revolutionary process led to agricultural and industrial collectivization, with workers taking control of companies and land.
Duality of Powers and the Central Committee of Antifascist Militias
Initially, the Generalitat had to accept the CNT’s parallel popular power, rejecting the government’s offer on July 20th. This duality of powers led to the formation of the Central Committee of Antifascist Militias, sanctioned by the government. By late September, the committee gained power and influence, returning the CNT to its position as the sole power center in Catalonia. The Generalitat accepted the collectivizations through the Decree of Collectivization on October 24, 1936, placing limitations and classifying collectivist enterprises.
May 1937 Events and the Loss of CNT Power
The May 1937 events marked the decline of CNT’s power.
The Rebel Zone
Organization
The rebel zone was led by Mola, alongside generals like Queipo de Llano and Cabanellas. The Junta Nacional de Defensa was established on July 24, 1936. Initially, the rebel territory was divided into three zones: Mola controlled Navarre and Burgos, Queipo de Llano controlled Seville and the rest of Andalusia, and Franco controlled North Africa before advancing to mainland Spain.
Franco’s Leadership and the Salamanca Meeting
In October 1936, a meeting in Salamanca established Franco as the overall commander, despite lacking a formal army or state. The governance included Falangists, CEDA, other right-wing parties, Carlists (important in Navarre), and Alphonsine monarchists. Their common goal was to establish an authoritarian monarchy and corporate state, suppressing political associations and worker unions, and dismantling democracy. Franco skillfully manipulated these groups to maintain control.
Juan de Borbón and Franco’s Consolidation of Power
Juan de Borbón, son of Alfonso XIII, was the Alphonsine monarchist candidate, aiming to restore the monarchy. Franco, however, had different ideas. He used the Falangists to sideline Juan Carlos and prevent a potential revolution. Franco’s control was solidified through the Falange, led by his brother-in-law, Serrano Suñer, who advocated for a single-party state. Within the Falange, there were two factions: one led by Hedilla (appointed by Primo de Rivera) and the other by Agustín Aznar. Suñer proposed unifying with the Carlists, with Hedilla as the new leader, on the condition that he eliminate the Aznar faction. This led to a confrontation, resulting in the arrest of both Hedilla and Aznar. In April 1937, the rebel forces unified the Falange and the Carlists into the Movimiento Nacional. Franco became the party leader, and Hedilla, refusing to cooperate, was arrested and sentenced to death, later commuted to life imprisonment. The Carlists, though dissatisfied, did not openly protest the decree.
The Corporate State and Repression
The corporate state controlled the economy and social life. Laws like the Fuero del Trabajo, similar to Mussolini’s Charter of Labor, were implemented. A vertical labor union system, comprising employers and employees, was organized, favoring employers. The Church regained its privileges in this Catholic state.
Repression
Franco aimed for a war of attrition against the Republicans. He sought to “cleanse Spain of the red.” A regime of fear and massacres was imposed, targeting Popular Front members and unionists. General Yagüe, known as the “Butcher of Badajoz,” was responsible for the deaths of over 2,000 people. Women suffered rape and abuse in prisons and at the hands of rebel troops. Living conditions were dire, especially for nuns.
The Civil War on the International Stage
England and France signed a Non-Intervention Pact, effectively preventing supplies from reaching the Republic. The International Brigades, formed in 1936, provided support. However, they withdrew in 1938, believing the war was lost.
Evolution of the War: The Battle of Barcelona and the Siege of Madrid
The Battle of Barcelona (July 19, 1936), led by Generals Mola and Sanjurjo, saw military units and fascist civilians revolting against the Republic. The coup failed in the Catalan Countries, except for Mallorca. Anarchist labor organizations attacked the Sant Andreu de Palomar barracks on July 20th, seizing weapons and war materiel. This made the CNT-FAI a powerful force in Barcelona. On the same afternoon, anarchist leaders like Juan García Oliver and Buenaventura Durruti met with President Companys, who accepted the creation of the Central Committee of Antifascist Militias of Catalonia, the true power in Catalonia until its dissolution in September. Within anarchosyndicalism, figures like Juan Peiró, Juan García Oliver, and Diego Abad de Santillán collaborated with Republican authorities, while others, mainly FAI leaders, promoted the revolution and Control Patrols, spreading terror (e.g., Manuel del Val and Dionisio Eroles Batlló).
The Siege of Madrid (October 1936 – March 28, 1939): The Battle of Madrid, fought in November 1936, saw Republican forces successfully defend the city against the rebels, securing communication with loyal territories in Catalonia and eastern Spain. This led to the siege of Madrid, a blockade that lasted until the city’s fall to Franco on March 28, 1939.