Spanish Civil War: Origins, Battles, and Franco’s Rise
Civil War
On July 17, 1936, a coup led by military conservatives began in the Spanish protectorate of Morocco. In the following days, it spread to the peninsula. This was the result of a conspiracy organized by the losers of the February elections, who sought to overthrow the legitimate Popular Front government. The coup’s partial success, failing in major cities due to resistance from those defending the Republic, led to a bloody civil war. This conflict resulted in General Franco’s dictatorship, lasting nearly 40 years. Spain became a testing ground for new weapons and warfare techniques, foreshadowing World War II (Fascist Italy and Germany vs. liberal Democrats and Communists).
General Fanjul, the rebel chief in Madrid, was found near the barracks by the people. In Barcelona, Goded and his followers were subdued by the populace and the loyal Civil Guard and Assault Guard. Valencia saw a similar outcome due to popular resistance. However, the revolt triumphed in rural areas and cities like Cordoba, Seville, Granada, and Zaragoza. The Cantabrian strip was soon cut off by the rebels.
Two opposing sides emerged. Supporters of the rebellion believed it was necessary to save Spain from chaos and restore order, ending the threat of communists and socialists. Those loyal to the Republic argued for consolidating democratic gains and stopping the spread of fascism in Europe. Many Spaniards joined sides based on geography rather than ideology.
The Republic held major mining areas and large cities, crucial for population and sustenance. Rebel-dominated Spain had less industry and population but abundant agricultural resources. The Republic controlled financial resources, enabling weapon purchases, especially from the USSR. Most professional soldiers supported the rebels, particularly the disciplined army in Morocco under Franco. The Republic’s army was disadvantaged as the government’s order for soldiers not to obey rebel officers was followed by loyalists but not by rebels. The Republic improvised a new army with militias lacking discipline and experience, making it less effective than the rebel army. Carlists and Falangists joined the rebels. Upper classes and middle peasantry supported the uprising, while working classes defended the Republic. Geographical loyalty was significant. Catalonia and the Basque Country supported the Republic, while rebels aimed to eliminate their autonomy. In Madrid, from September, the Socialist Largo Caballero led the government, aiming to unite all anti-insurgency forces.
1936
After the coup’s failure, troops from the north (Mola) and south (Franco) planned to converge on Madrid. Franco, initially isolated in Morocco due to the Republic’s fleet, sought German and Italian aircraft. He succeeded as the Republican navy lacked fuel, allowing Franco’s troops to join rebels in Seville under Queipo de Llano. He advanced to Extremadura, linking with Mola’s forces. Mola’s army conquered Irun and San Sebastian, isolating the northern Republican zone. Franco’s advance on Madrid was delayed to liberate the Alcazar of Toledo, giving Madrid time to prepare for a siege. In September, Franco was named Generalissimo, consolidating power and moving towards dictatorship.
As Franco’s troops approached Madrid, militias from other parts of Spain, International Brigades, and Soviet aid arrived. A defense board led by Miaja was formed. The government moved to Valencia, fearing capture. Franco’s attempts to take Madrid failed after several battles, leading to trench warfare, artillery duels, and bombings of civilians, with international aid supporting both sides.
1937
Before the war, monarchists like Calvo Sotelo had contacted Fascist Italy to undermine the Republic. Mussolini sent weapons used against civilians in Malaga’s conquest in February 1937. That month, Franco, unable to take Madrid directly, attempted to cut the road to Valencia, leading to the Battle of Jarama. The objective failed, with heavy casualties on both sides. International Brigades played a crucial role, and dogfights occurred with German and Soviet equipment.
Following Malaga’s success, Italian forces aimed to encircle Madrid from the north (Guadalajara). In March, Italian troops, nationalists, aircraft, and tanks attacked. The Republic organized mixed brigades, including International Brigades, which counterattacked successfully. The Italians retreated, leaving behind equipment, dead, wounded, and prisoners. This victory had a significant propaganda effect.
After Jarama and Guadalajara, Franco focused on conquering Republican territories gradually. The northern region (Asturias, Santander, Basque Country) was targeted for its mineral and industrial resources. After bombing Guernica, Bilbao fell in June, and its autonomy was revoked. Santander was the next target. President Juan Negrin ordered a surprise attack in Brunete to divert the northern offensive, but Santander fell in July. In Aragon, a Republican offensive aimed at Belchite and Zaragoza failed, and Asturias fell in October, eliminating the northern front.
The northern victory provided resources for Franco’s army. The Republic launched a diversionary offensive in Teruel, capturing the city, the first provincial capital won by Republicans. Franco’s counteroffensive recaptured Teruel.
1938
After Teruel, rebels aimed to reach the Mediterranean, splitting the Republican zone (Catalonia, Madrid, Valencia). They reached Vinaroz, advancing towards Valencia. The Republic launched the Battle of the Ebro to cut off the nationalists’ rear. The offensive surprised the rebels, but the Republic was weakened by a nationalist counterattack with artillery and aviation. The Munich Agreement disheartened Republican resistance. The Republican army retreated across the Ebro, losing men and equipment.
Catalan President Companys was executed. Many Republicans fled to France. Franco attacked Catalonia in early 1939, occupying it in two months. Autonomy was abolished, and Companys was later executed by the Gestapo. After Barcelona’s fall, many Republicans fled to France. President Azaña resigned and went into exile. In Madrid, Colonel Casado formed a National Defense Council against Negrin’s resistance policy, aiming to negotiate peace. Franco demanded unconditional surrender. Loyalist troops refused to fight Casado’s forces. Rebel troops occupied the remaining Republican areas without opposition, entering Madrid in March 1939. The war ended, and democracy was replaced by Franco’s dictatorship.
The Spanish Civil War, a major catastrophe, led to Franco’s ruthless dictatorship, which showed no mercy to the defeated.