Spanish Civil War: Origins, Conflict, and Franco’s Dictatorship
The Spark of Conflict: July 1936
On July 18, 1936, the more conservative faction of the Spanish military initiated an uprising against the Republic, anticipating a swift victory. However, the coup failed in major cities due to loyalist resistance. This marked the beginning of a brutal social, political, and military conflict between the Republican side, supported by the USSR, France, and Mexico, and the Nationalist side, backed by Italy and Germany. Ultimately, the Nationalists, aided by international support, prevailed, leading to General Francisco Franco’s dictatorship and the end of the democratic regime established in 1931.
Precursors to War: Unrest and Division
The Republic’s final years were characterized by social unrest and clashes between supporters and opponents. Key factors included oligarchic resistance to land reform, church-state conflict over secular policies, and disputes over regional autonomy. The global economic crisis and the rise of totalitarianism in Europe further exacerbated tensions. A military conspiracy, initiated in 1933, culminated in a declaration from the Protectorate, aiming to restore order. The uprising succeeded in cities like Seville, Cadiz, Cordoba, Granada, and regions like Navarre, Aragon, Castilla y León, Mallorca, the Canary Islands, and parts of Extremadura. However, it faltered in Madrid, Barcelona, the Levant, and Castilla-La Mancha. This division led to the emergence of two opposing camps: the Nationalists, supported by the traditional oligarchy, landowners, right-wing groups, and the Catholic Church, and the Republicans, increasingly influenced by radical anarchists and communists.
The Coup and the War’s Eruption
Emilio Mola led the conspiracy, planning a simultaneous nationwide uprising, but it began prematurely in Morocco. The uprising’s partial failure and Republican resistance triggered a three-year civil war. The country split into two factions: the Nationalists, dominant in inland Spain, the conservative agricultural areas, and cities like Seville, Granada, and Zaragoza, backed by conservative military figures, landowners, and traditionalist Catholic groups; and the Republicans, controlling industrial areas, major cities, and the Bank of Spain’s gold reserves.
Internationalization of the Conflict
Initially an internal conflict stemming from social tensions, the war escalated into an international one due to foreign intervention, despite a non-intervention agreement. The Republicans received military aid from the USSR, France, and Mexico, purchasing materiel with gold reserves. The International Brigades, composed of volunteers fighting against fascism, also supported the Republican cause. The Nationalists received substantial assistance from Italy, Germany, the United States, and Moroccan troops. Germany’s Condor Legion and Italian arms and troops played a crucial role in Franco’s eventual victory. While the Republican government faced loan blockades, the Nationalists enjoyed consistent financial aid.
Key Battles and Turning Points
The Nationalists’ initial objective was a rapid capture of Madrid, but General Mola’s advance was halted in the Guadarrama mountains. Franco’s army, arriving from Morocco, then took center stage. The liberation of the Alcázar de Toledo was a propaganda coup for Franco, who was subsequently appointed generalissimo of the insurgent forces. Largo Caballero militarized the militias, successfully resisting Franco’s assault on Madrid. The Italian army was defeated at the Battle of Guadalajara. After failing to take Madrid, Franco shifted his strategy, targeting the industrial north and mining regions. The Condor Legion bombed cities like Guernica and Durango. The Negrín government’s crisis couldn’t halt the Nationalist advance, which conquered the north and disrupted Republican naval supply lines from the Mediterranean. Franco renewed his offensive on Madrid, while Negrín launched a counter-offensive at Teruel, ultimately losing the battle. This defeat proved disastrous for the Republic, leading to Indalecio Prieto’s dismissal. Nationalist superiority allowed them to conquer Aragon and reach the Mediterranean. In June 1938, Negrín launched an offensive at the Ebro to relieve pressure on Valencia, but Franco’s army stalled the advance in the bloodiest battle of the war. By late January 1939, Barcelona and Girona fell to the Nationalists. Negrín and the Catalan government fled to France. Azaña resigned after France and the UK recognized Franco’s regime. In Madrid, Colonel Casado, supported by the CNT, revolted against Negrín’s government, seeking a negotiated peace without reprisals. After the Communists’ defeat, Casado negotiated with Burgos, but Franco demanded unconditional surrender. On April 1, 1939, Franco’s forces took Madrid, ending the war.
Revolution and Internal Conflicts
The Nationalists justified the coup as a response to a supposed communist revolution, but the uprising itself triggered a collectivist revolution. The CNT, FAI, and UGT clashed with the PCE and PSOE. Popular Committees and Boards seized municipal power, acting as parallel governments. The army dissolved, replaced by volunteer militias. During Largo Caballero’s administration, Barcelona experienced a crisis, with the CNT and POUM fighting against the Republican government and Communists, marked by killings of union leaders and the eviction of Telefónica. Negrín formed a government solely of political parties, excluding unions, aiming to resist the coup and seek a negotiated solution. He hoped for a European war that would bring allies, but the Munich Pact dashed those hopes.
Consequences: Franco’s Dictatorship and its Legacy
The war’s primary outcome was the establishment of a totalitarian state opposed to liberalism, democracy, separatism, and communism. The army, along with the Falange and the Church, became the regime’s pillars. After Sanjurjo’s death, Franco was appointed Head of State and Government, as well as Generalissimo of the armies. He suspended the constitution, banned political parties, and reversed land reform. He created a single party, FET y de las JONS, modeled on fascist regimes. In 1938, he formed the first government in Burgos, implementing social policies through the Labour Law, banning strikes, imposing strict censorship, and harshly repressing opponents through the Law of Political Responsibilities (February 1939).
In conclusion, the Spanish Civil War ushered in Franco’s personal dictatorship, ending the Republic. The consequences were devastating in human, economic, and cultural terms. Over 500,000 people perished, many were exiled, the economy was shattered, and numerous intellectuals fled the country due to repression.