Spanish Civil War: Political Landscape and International Impact
The Spanish Civil War: Political and International Dimensions of the Conflict
1. Political Developments During the War
1.1 Republican Spain
Dismantling of the State and Social Revolution (July-September 1936)
The military uprising exposed the differences and tensions within the Popular Front. Unions and labor organizations demanded that the government distribute weapons to defend the Republic, but Prime Minister Casares Quiroga refused. A new government of the Republican left ordered the distribution of arms among the workers. Consequently, the military rebellion led to the collapse of the State, which lost control of the situation. The social revolution advocated by the UGT, the CNT, and the POUM was chaotic.
The Government of Largo Caballero (September 1936-May 1937)
The new government included Communist and Anarchist ministers (Federica Montseny). The aim was to restore the authority of the Republican State, redirecting the revolution. It demanded the dissolution of the councils and committees that had emerged since the war began, trying to create a real army with a unified command.
In October, the Statute of Autonomy of the Basque Country was approved. With Franco’s advance, the government moved to Valencia on November 6, 1936. In Madrid, a Defense Board was established under General Miaja.
The negative progress of the war, economic problems, the increasing influence of the Communists (due to Soviet aid to the Republican government), and the clashes within the Left (PCE, POUM-CNT) led to the events in Barcelona in May 1937. Largo Caballero was forced to resign.
Negrin’s Government (May 1937-March 1939)
Negrin’s priority was to end the revolutionary chaos. His government integrated the PSOE, Republicans, Nationalists, and the PCE. In the summer of 1937, the government managed to dissolve the only revolutionary power that survived beyond the control of the state.
In 1938, the war, economic stress, increasing international isolation, and increased discouragement among Republicans suggested two possible strategies for dealing with the war:
- Official position: Negrin, with the support of the Communists and the PSOE, defended “resistance at all costs” in the hope of the outbreak of a wider war in Europe.
- Anarchist leaders, Socialists (Indalecio Prieto), and Republicans (Azaña) favored negotiating peace.
Negrin and the Communists’ thesis prevailed, but in May 1938, Negrin published his “Thirteen Points,” offering peace to the Franco side, maintenance of the Republic, and the call for free elections and a new democratic government after the war.
The fall of Barcelona in January 1939 led Azaña into exile, along with the government. France and Britain recognized the Franco government, which increased its morale. On March 5, 1939, Colonel Casado, commander of the Army of the Center, supported by the Socialist Julián Besteiro, tried to negotiate with Franco, but Franco only accepted unconditional surrender. On March 28, Franco’s troops entered Madrid, and after taking the last Republican pockets (Valencia and Alicante), on April 1, Franco declared the end of the war.
1.2 Nationalist Spain
The Board of National Defense (July-September 1936)
The military gained prominence. In villages, the Board of National Defense was established. Its mission was to govern the rebel territory. The real power was exercised by each general in his area: Franco in Africa, Queipo de Llano in the south, and Mola in the north.
The first steps included an end to the Republic’s policies, banning trade unions and political parties, censoring the press, and removing Republicans from public offices. Brutal repression, mass arrests, and executions followed.
Franco, Head of State and Generalissimo (September 1936)
Sanjurjo’s death and Franco’s success in the liberation of the Alcázar of Toledo increased his popularity. On October 1, 1936, Franco was named Generalissimo of the Army and Head of Government of the Spanish State, concentrating all political and military power.
The Political and Ideological Unification (1937)
Franco promulgated the Decree of Unification on April 20, 1937. All political organizations were merged into one: the Traditionalist Spanish Falange and of the Juntas of the National Syndicalist Offensive (FET y de las JONS), known as the “National Movement,” with Franco as the supreme leader.
On July 1, 1937, Franco received the support of the Spanish Church, which defended the army’s rebellion and the civil war as a religious crusade in defense of the faith and against the godless communism of the Republic.
The First Government of Burgos and the New Totalitarian State (1938)
The first government included Monarchists, conservative Catholics, Traditionalists, Falangists, and the military. Franco was Head of State and Prime Minister. The regime was intensely personal, inspired by Fascist and Catholic ideals.
His political program annulled any law of the Republic, reinstated the confessional state, set aside land reform, returned confiscated industries and businesses, banned political and civil liberties, and abolished autonomous status.
Repression meant that any individual suspected of sympathizing with the Republic was persecuted. Tens of thousands of people were executed and imprisoned.
2. The Internationalization of the Conflict
Foreign intervention was of great importance in the development of the conflict.
The Failed Non-Intervention Committee
In connection with the “policy of appeasement,” France and Britain tried to isolate the Spanish conflict by creating a committee of non-intervention to prevent the internationalization of the conflict and the delivery of arms to the rebels. It was a failure.
Aid to the Rebels
The countries that directly helped the military rebels were those with Fascist or similar regimes (Germany, Italy, and Portugal).
Hitler’s reasons were strategic, and his military help was the most decisive. It included the participation of the Condor Legion (aircraft, soldiers, and officers), industrial technology, and economic aid.
Mussolini’s Italy contributed troops (CTV) and aircraft that saw action (Battle of Guadalajara).
The rebels also counted on the collaboration of Portugal, Moroccan mercenaries, and volunteer support from anti-communist groups in Ireland, Romania, and Portugal.
Pope Pius XI recognized the new Franco regime in August 1937. Large American companies (Ford, General Motors, and Texaco) also provided supplies.