Spanish Civil War: Uprising, Stages, and Consequences
1. Military Uprising of the Spanish Civil War
1.1 The Conspiracy
The Popular Front’s electoral victory radicalized society and politics, leading to armed insurrection. The Left replaced Alcalá Zamora with Azana as president. The new government, led by Santiago Casares Quiroga, sidelined prominent right-wing generals. Generals Franco and Mola were sent to the Balearic Islands and Pamplona, respectively, after meeting in Madrid (March 1936).
Months before the war were marked by a climate of violence:
- The extreme right, including the Spanish Falange, escalated street violence, using the “dialectic of fists and guns.”
- Moderate unionism saw radical factions emerge, such as the Unified Socialist Youth.
Assassinations, strikes, and militia clashes were common. The murder of Lieutenant Castillo and the subsequent killing of Calvo Sotelo were pivotal events.
General Mola led the military conspiracy, coordinating with Carlists, José Antonio Primo de Rivera, CEDA members, and General Sanjurjo in exile. Their aim was to overthrow the Popular Front and establish a Military Board, underestimating the potential for war.
1.2 Uprising and Division
The death of Calvo Sotelo on July 13, 1936, accelerated the uprising, which began in Spanish Morocco on July 17. Franco arrived in Tetouan on July 19. The revolt spread to mainland Spain on July 18, leading to Casares Quiroga’s resignation. Martínez Barrio’s attempt to compromise with Mola failed, resulting in Giral’s government arming the people.
Spain was divided into two areas:
Republican Spain: Industrial, developed agriculture, mining, navy, air force (limited control), Russian assistance, and the Bank of Spain.
Nationalist Spain: Agricultural, army commanders, Italian and German aid.
2. Development and Consequences of the War
2.1 Stages of the War
Early stages involved the passage of the Strait, column actions, and the Battle of Madrid. Rebel troops moved from Africa with German and Italian support. Militias formed on both sides, based on political affiliations.
The Nationalist side, led by Mola and Franco, aimed to capture Madrid. Mola’s advance was halted in Guadarrama, while Franco’s forces occupied Mérida, Badajoz, and Toledo.
The Republican side initially lacked political and military unity. The government moved to Valencia in November 1936, leaving Madrid’s defense to a board and international brigades.
Franco’s attempts to encircle Madrid failed, including the defeat of Italian troops at the Battle of Guadalajara. The focus shifted to the north.
Summary executions were common on both sides. The northern front fell after heavy bombardment, despite Basque resistance. Franco’s forces advanced in Aragon, isolating Catalonia.
The Battle of the Ebro was a last Republican offensive, resulting in heavy casualties and Franco’s victory, leading to the conquest of Catalonia.
Catalonia’s Fall and the War’s End
The Nationalist army launched an offensive on Catalonia in December 1938. The Republican government fled to Gerona and then into exile. Madrid saw internal conflict over surrender. General Casado’s coup against Negrín failed to secure negotiations. Franco’s forces entered Madrid on March 28, 1939, ending the war.
2.2 Internal Dimension: Political Evolution
Republican Side: Revolution
The Giral government armed Popular Front organizations, leading to a revolution and autonomous powers. Largo Caballero’s government aimed to restore state authority but faced internal divisions between communists and anarchists.
Negrín’s government pursued communist-backed resistance policies. Internal conflicts and the loss of Catalonia led to Negrín’s ousting and the formation of a National Defense Council, which failed to negotiate peace.
Rebel Side: Counter-Revolution and Franco’s Unity
Franco united Catholic and anti-revolutionary sentiments, with the army playing a dominant role. He became Generalissimo and Head of State, consolidating power and establishing a single party, the National Movement.
2.4 Consequences of War
Demographic: Estimated 500,000 deaths, including war casualties, repression, famine, and epidemics. Mass exile of Republicans, including intellectuals and artists.
Economic: Catastrophic destruction of industry, infrastructure, and loss of gold reserves. National income did not recover until 1950.
Social: Oligarchy regained economic and social dominance. Loss of workers’ rights.
Moral: Deep moral divide and lasting trauma. Franco’s regime never sought reconciliation, perpetuating the war’s legacy.