Spanish Civil War: Uprising, Stages, and Political Evolution
1. The Military Uprising and Internationalization
Conservative opposition actions led to a coup starting on July 17, 1936. The Popular Front served as their justification.
On July 17, 1936, Colonel Yagüe, along with Carlist requetés, rebelled against the Republic. Franco joined the peninsular army from Africa.
Quiroja Casares was replaced by José Giral, who armed the militias and the Popular Front. Part of the army remained loyal to the government and attempted to suppress the uprising.
While the coup succeeded in conservative inland Spain, it failed in areas with strong worker forces.
After a week, the division of the country into two warring sides became evident, marking the beginning of the civil war.
Two Sides
Rebels: Composed of conservative military members, right-wing monarchists, Catholics, Falangists, and Carlists opposed to the Republic’s reforms.
Inspired by fascism, they defined themselves as “national” and “Catholic.”
Despite initial unity, disagreements arose after the coup. The military, having eliminated the threat of revolution, considered restoring the monarchy or continuing the republic.
- CEDA: Supported an Alfonsine monarchy.
- Falange: Favored an Italian-style fascist regime.
- Carlists: Sought a Carlist monarchy.
Republicans: Made up of the working classes, they defended the Republic and sought to transform the country towards socialism.
The Spanish Civil War had a significant international impact, viewed as a clash between democracy and fascism. The global democratic opinion favored the Republic, while conservative democracies (Britain and France) and fascist regimes (Germany and Italy) saw Franco’s rise as a way to stop communism.
Both sides sought international support, but leaders remained cautious of escalating the conflict into a European war. Great Britain warned France against intervention, threatening to withhold support against Hitler. France then initiated a Non-Intervention Committee, which proved detrimental to the Republic, forcing them to seek weapons wherever possible.
The Soviet Union accepted Spanish gold reserves in exchange for weapons. The International Brigades provided crucial support.
The rebels received more foreign aid. Germany sent the Condor Legion to test new weapons and secure strategic resources. Italy sent the Corpo Truppe Volontarie, providing arms and support.
2. Stages of the War
The civil war unfolded in several stages:
Capturing Madrid (July-November 1936)
Colonel Yagüe aimed to seize Madrid. Franco, now leading the army after Sanjurjo’s death, occupied Toledo in late October and reached Madrid’s outskirts.
Madrid’s defense was bolstered by the International Brigades and an anarchist column from Barcelona led by Durruti.
Battles Around Madrid (December 1936-March 1937)
Failing to take the capital, the rebels launched two maneuvers:
- The Battle of Jarama: Rebels crossed the river but were halted by Republicans.
- The Battle of Guadalajara: Italian troops were defeated by the Republic, marking their first major victory.
Occupation of the North (April-October 1937)
Franco shifted focus to the north. The Basque city of Guernica was destroyed by Nazi aircraft, marking the first bombing of civilians, immortalized by Picasso.
The Republic resisted but lost Santander and Asturias.
Advance Towards the Mediterranean (November 1937-July 1938)
Republicans launched the Teruel offensive, but Franco countered with the Aragon campaign, dividing Republican territory.
Battle of the Ebro and Occupation of Catalonia (July 1938-February 1939)
Republicans attacked across the Ebro River, but Franco’s reinforcements, including German and Italian troops, halted the offensive. Catalonia fell, and the government fled to France.
End of the War (February-April 1939)
Negrín attempted to reorganize the remaining Republican forces. An uprising in Madrid, led by Segismundo Casado, sought a deal with Franco. Franco accepted only unconditional surrender and entered Madrid on March 28, 1939.
3. Political Evolution in the Two Zones
Republican Zone
José Giral armed the militias. State power collapsed, replaced by revolutionary bodies. Councils and committees organized volunteers for the front.
The military uprising triggered a revolutionary climate. Peasants and workers confronted the rebels. Industrial and agricultural properties were collectivized.
The early months saw widespread violence against rebels, including assassinations and illegal arrests. Politicians were killed, and Primo de Rivera was executed.
Political forces sought to centralize power to win the war. In late summer 1936, the Republicans formed an anti-fascist alliance.
Largo Caballero formed a government with Republicans, Socialists, and Communists. Disagreements arose on war strategy. Socialists prioritized order, while anarchists and the POUM advocated revolution.
The Barcelona May Days (1937) saw clashes between the CNT, POUM, and government supporters, resulting in over 200 deaths.
Communists demanded the POUM’s dissolution and the arrest of its leaders. Largo Caballero resigned, and Azaña appointed Juan Negrín. The POUM was outlawed, and Andreu Nin was killed.
Negrín’s government prioritized military action. As Franco advanced, the government sought a negotiated solution, but Franco demanded unconditional surrender.
The Munich Agreement (September 1938) weakened the Republic. Britain and France recognized Franco’s government, and Azaña resigned.
Rebel Zone
The army organized the new state. General Sanjurjo’s death and the war’s outbreak created leadership issues.
The National Defense Council, composed of military members, ruled occupied territory, banning political parties, suspending the constitution, and halting reforms.
Franco gained recognition from Mussolini and Hitler. He was appointed head of state and Generalissimo on October 1, 1936.
Franco unified the Falange and Carlists, creating the Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS.
Franco’s government suppressed freedoms and repealed civil marriage and divorce. The new state was based on fascism, conservatism, and Catholicism.
Systematic repression targeted Republican sympathizers. The war brought misery and death. Food shortages, inflation, and disease were widespread. Industrial production declined due to mobilization. Bombings affected civilians.
Refugees fled Republican areas to escape occupation and repression. Franco’s victory marked the beginning of a 40-year dictatorship.