Spanish Colonial Wars: Cuba, Philippines, and the Disaster of ’98
The Colonial Wars of Spain
Following the notifications of 1814 and 1824, during the reign of Fernando VII, Spain lost most of its colonial empire, including Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippine archipelago in Oceania. Spanish colonial politics aimed to maintain overseas possessions without considering the demands of the bourgeoisie.
Cuba economically provided many benefits to the metropolis. However, Cuban citizens were treated as second-class citizens, and protectionist government policies from Madrid prevented them from buying cheaper products from the North American market. This discontent led to the rise of independentist movements, characterized by events like the Cry of Yara and the Ten Years’ War (1868-1878).
Alfonso XII sent Martínez Campos to quell the Cuban and Carlist wars, ending with the Zanjón Peace. Spain committed to ending slavery and establishing political autonomy for the island. However, this pact was broken, and autonomy was never granted, despite Antonio Maura’s last attempt, which was rejected by the Cortes. This negative response provoked the 1895 uprising, the second war of independence, the Cry of Baire, during carnival season.
Rebellions in Cuba and the Philippines
The conflict in Cuba arose amidst popular support, including from the African and mixed-race population. The Manifesto of Montecristi proclaimed Cuba’s freedom. After the death of José Martí, the initial strategy was implemented, consisting mainly of guerrilla warfare to control parts of the island. Martínez Campos, despite his efforts, was unable to defeat the mambises. The government, under Canovas del Castillo, replaced Martínez Campos with General Weyler to change tactics and cut off support to the mambises from the campesinos. Despite the economic cost and losses, the rebellion was not suppressed. Simultaneously, uprisings in the Philippines occurred, led by those seeking autonomy and independence. José Rizal led the anti-Spanish uprising, but it was quickly dismantled, and Rizal was executed. Everything went wrong until the U.S. intervention in the war.
U.S. Intervention and the Treaty of Paris
The North American government wanted economic and political control over these colonies. Some Cubans supported the war, and the U.S. openly intervened, backed by public opinion. The incident involving the sinking of the battleship Maine, anchored in Havana, provided a pretext for intervention. Although likely an accident, the blame was placed on the Spanish. President McKinley offered to buy Cuba, but Spain refused, leading to war. This risky decision was met with misinformation among Spanish citizens. Only a few intellectuals and writers, like Pío Baroja and others, dared to oppose this belief. The war was primarily fought at sea, resulting in a Spanish defeat. The subsequent Treaty of Paris mandated Spain to grant independence to Cuba and transfer Puerto Rico and the Philippines to the U.S., who later sold the remaining islands.
The Impact of the Disaster of ’98
The loss of the last colonies was considered a military and diplomatic disaster, especially given the popular belief in Spanish superiority. The loss led to a decline in income, goods, and privileged markets. The army was discredited, and public debate focused on the responsibilities for the military disaster, blaming both policies and the military. The focus shifted from overseas territories to northern Africa, with Morocco becoming an obsession for Alfonso XIII. Anti-militarist and anti-war sentiment increased in Spain.