Spanish Colonization of the Americas: Discovery, Conquest, and Impact
The Discovery of America
Atlantic expansion was driven by Castile. Several factors enabled this discovery:
- Advances in cartography, including more detailed portolan charts indicating wind directions.
- Use of the quadrant and sextant.
- Castile’s overcoming of Portuguese obstacles to its Atlantic expansion.
- Expectations of discovering new wealth for individuals and the Crown.
The driving force behind this initiative was Christopher Columbus, who envisioned a western route to India. Columbus initially presented his project to John II of Portugal, who rejected it. The Catholic Monarchs of Spain accepted but postponed it until the end of the Granada War. In April 1492, they signed the Capitulations of Santa Fe with Columbus, outlining the powers of Columbus and the Crown of Castile. Columbus departed from Palos with three ships on August 3, 1492, and reached Guanahani Island (Bahamas) on October 12. Following the discovery, Castile and Portugal signed the Treaty of Tordesillas, dividing African and Atlantic territories between the two crowns. Columbus undertook three more voyages but faced disputes over the interpretation of the Capitulations and his role in administering the new territories. He died in 1506 without full recognition of his discovery.
Conquest and Colonization
The 16th century saw significant expansion in the Caribbean and the Americas through capitulaciones (agreements establishing conditions for conquest). The conquest unfolded in three stages:
- Until 1515: Caribbean occupation through capitulaciones with the Crown.
- 1515–1539: Exploration by small groups (Hernando Cortés and Francisco Pizarro) conquering vast territories for the Crown. The goal was to find a sea passage to the Indies (Magellan opened the route through the South Sea in 1520). Cortés conquered the Aztec Empire (Mexico), and Pizarro conquered the Inca Empire (Peru and Ecuador) between 1532 and 1533.
- 1539–1548: Further conquests in the Amazon (Orellana), Chile, Buenos Aires, and Rio de la Plata. Magellan’s circumnavigation (1519–1522) and expeditions to the Caroline Islands and the Philippines also took place.
By the late 16th century, military expeditions transitioned into exploration and missionary work (California, New Mexico, and Texas). Missions (Franciscans) and reductions (Jesuits) established settlements where Indigenous peoples were Christianized while respecting their traditions and culture.
Factors Favoring Spanish Progress
- Technological Superiority
- Cultural Differences: Indigenous religions often had a cyclical view of life, leading some to accept conquest as inevitable. In contrast, the Spanish believed their God would not abandon them.
- Indigenous Allies
- Diseases: Diseases like influenza, measles, and mumps, harmless to the Spanish, devastated Indigenous populations.
Colonization and its Impact
Following the conquests, colonization, the formal takeover of land, began. Spain, specifically Castile, became the metropolis (mother city), and the Americas became its colony. Spain controlled the politics, economy, society, and culture of the colonized territories. Colonization led to significant changes in the Americas, including the overlapping of colonial cities with existing Indigenous cities, like the Aztec and Inca capitals. The Indigenous population declined due to epidemics, new diseases, economic exploitation, and extermination. This led to the importation of enslaved Africans, resulting in a mixed American population. Conquerors quickly founded cities, initially building military garrisons (forts) for defense and economic hubs. Spontaneous architecture gave way to official architecture, with Spain dictating urbanization patterns. The main objective was exploiting gold and silver mines and introducing new crops and livestock. The encomienda system, a form of feudalism, was implemented, where an encomendero protected, Christianized, and extracted labor from the Indigenous population. This system was criticized by Bartolomé de las Casas. The New Laws under Charles I prohibited enslaving Indigenous people and abolished encomiendas, replacing them with plantations and the hacienda system. The mita system required Indigenous communities to send workers to colonial holdings seasonally.
Impact of America on Spain
Economic Impact: The arrival of approximately 19,000 tons of gold and silver until 1650 financed the monarchy’s foreign policy and military, but also fueled inflation, making Spanish products less competitive. American trade diversified agricultural products (corn, potatoes) and introduced colonial goods (cocoa, sugar, tobacco).
Social and Legal Impact: New World inhabitants were considered subjects of the monarchy. The Laws of Burgos (1512) regulated encomiendas, but conditions remained harsh, leading to criticism from figures like Bartolomé de las Casas. The New Laws of the Indies (1542) attempted to end enslavement and the encomienda system but didn’t fully recognize Indigenous rights to freedom and property.