Spanish Conquest and Colonization of the Americas: 16th-17th Centuries
**America: Conquest and Colonization**
The First Colonists and the Desire for Conquest
The first colonists settled in the Antilles, and their presence caused serious demographic, economic, and ideological issues. The news of the rich empires within the continent encouraged the desire for conquest. Some notable conquest and exploration companies are highlighted below:
- In 1519, Hernán Cortés left Cuba, landed on the coast of Mexico, and founded Veracruz. Three years later, he ended the Aztec Empire and dominated the central Mexican plateau.
- In 1532, Francisco Pizarro overthrew the Inca Empire, which occupied present-day Peru, Ecuador, and parts of Bolivia. In 1535, he founded the city of Lima.
Several explanations exist for these achievements:
- Lack of political cohesion, as empires were formed by warring tribes.
- The spread of diseases like smallpox.
- The element of surprise from horses, hounds, and firearms used by the Spanish.
Other expeditions were driven by the quest for “El Dorado,” while others sought to colonize land, exploit mines, or build cities. In 1519, Ferdinand Magellan crossed Cape Horn, reached the Philippines, and died there. Juan Sebastian Elcano continued the trip back to Seville in 1522, completing the first circumnavigation of the world.
Conquerors were younger sons of noble families from Extremadura, Castile, and the Basque Country, accompanied by people from all walks of life. The kings granted capitulations of conquest, that is, permission to recruit people and conquer a territory in the name of the king. If the expedition failed, the conqueror was responsible.
Government and Administration of the Indies
The government and administration of the Indies followed the model of the Crown of Castile. The following were implemented:
- The County (the town hall with the mayor)
- The Viceroyalties (larger territorial divisions)
- The Audiencias (judicial and government functions)
The Church supported the plans of the monarchy. The secular clergy was under the control of the kings, and the regular clergy especially encouraged the evangelization and acculturation of the Indians. Except in matters of faith, the king was the head of the American church.
Viceroyalties and Audiencias
There were two Viceroyalties:
- Viceroyalty of New Spain
- Viceroyalty of Peru
The Viceroy was in charge of government, the military commander, chief of administration, and enforcer of justice. Within the viceroyalties were governorates (small territorial divisions), and within these were townships that included several towns organized according to the Castilian model.
The Audiencias had judicial and government functions. The first was in Santo Domingo. To correct abuses, authorities were subject to an investigation upon leaving office, called a trial of impeachment.
The operating systems of work employed (encomienda and mita) led to complaints from monks. The result was the publication of the Laws of Burgos. The controversy and allegations continued, with figures like Bartolomé de las Casas and Francisco de Vitoria protesting the treatment of Indians. The Crown attempted to rectify the situation with the enactment of the New Laws of the Indies (1542) but to no avail.
To control its decisions in America, the Crown created the Council of the Indies, which had authority over all territories, issues, and organizations in the Indies and was responsible for drafting legislation.
Exploitation of Resources and Social Change
The new territories were a source of income for Castile and the Crown, which controlled commercial traffic and reserved one-fifth of imported products, known as the royal fifth. The Spanish used two main working systems in Latin America:
- Lands were divided among settlers and worked in parcels (a system used in America where a Spanish conquistador obtained a group of Indians to work for him in exchange for instructing them in the faith), which was implemented in Mexico and Peru.
- Mines were owned by the Crown, which ceded them in return for the royal fifth. When Potosí was discovered, the mita (a forced labor system for mining) was introduced.
These systems of work were reported by Bartolomé de las Casas. In agriculture, indigenous production systems disappeared and were replaced by the expansion of livestock in extensive latifundios.
Colonial Society
Colonial society was organized as an extension of Andalusian and Extremaduran society, as many emigrants came from these regions. A society of estates, similar to that in Castile, was established in America. The conquerors did not obtain titles but managed to become masters of the Indians. Society was organized with the cooperation of the Church and the Indian chiefs, who had great influence in their communities.
The high mortality rate among Indians led to the development of the black slave trade between Africa and America. The Crown controlled this trade through various forms of marketing. In the 16th century, licenses were sold to private individuals to bring in a certain number of black slaves. In the 17th century, the Crown sold monopolies to individuals or businesses for a specific period.
The Impact of America on Spain
The conquest allowed for an exchange of previously unknown agricultural products. From America came corn, potatoes, cocoa, and tobacco. Europe brought cereals, grapes, olives, and animals such as horses, cows, and sheep.
Gold and silver were the most desired products. American resources were used to finance wars. This influx of money was one of the causes of price increases in Spain and stimulated trade with Latin America and Europe. The economy of Castile and Andalusia was also stimulated. Seville became the center of this trade. To protect it, a system of cargo ship fleets and armed galleons was established. Two annual fleets departed from Seville.
The discovery and conquest of America represented a factor of change in worldview and cultural values.