Spanish Conquests: Mexico, Peru, and Colonial Society
The Conquest of Mexico
The Conquest of Mexico refers mainly to the submission of the Aztec State, led by Hernán Cortés in the name of Charles I and in favor of the then-rampant Spanish Empire between 1519 and 1521. On August 13th of that year, the city of Mexico-Tenochtitlan fell to the Spanish conquistadors after two years of bitter war efforts, political maneuvering, and conspiracies. The peoples previously subjugated by the Aztecs actively participated alongside the Spanish invaders in an effort to rebel, building a circumstantial alliance as newcomers to the conditions of subjugation in which they lived.
The Conquest of Peru
The Conquest of Peru (1532-1533) is the historical process of annexation of the Inca Empire to the Spanish Empire. The first contact between the Spanish and the Inca occurred during the reign of Huayna Capac when some chasquis (Inca messengers) brought a Spaniard to the Inca, communicated through sign language, and then let him go. However, it was not until 1532 that an Inca army encountered a Spanish army. At this meeting, Atahualpa was imprisoned by Francisco Pizarro, and weeks later, he was executed. However, Inca resistance continued until 1574.
Colonial Society
The colonial society was structured as follows:
- Criollos: Children of the colonizers.
- Mestizo: Descendants of an Indian mother and a colonizer father.
- Zambos: Children of indigenous and black individuals.
- Mulatto: Children of white and black individuals.
The Catholic Kings
The Union of Castile and Aragon
The Catholic Kings, Ferdinand and Isabella, married in 1469. Ferdinand was the son of John II, King of Aragon, and Isabella was the sister of Henry IV, King of Castile. Ferdinand encountered no problems coming to power, as he became King after his father’s death. However, Isabella faced a civil war in the years 1475-1479 against her niece, Juana la Beltraneja.
Territorial Expansion
- Kingdom of Granada: Incorporated in 1492 after a 10-year war. The Catholic Kings had a superior army, and Boabdil surrendered.
- Kingdom of Navarre: The King of Navarre made pacts with France, which was Castile’s great rival. Nevertheless, the Catholic Kings prevailed in 1515, and Navarre was incorporated into Castile.
- Portugal: To seal an alliance with Portugal, the Catholic Kings married their daughter Elizabeth to Manuel, King of Portugal. However, Isabel died without issue, and the Catholic Kings married their other daughter, Maria, to Manuel.
The Catholic Kings strategically married their children, occupying the throne of the Holy Roman Empire and the British throne.
The Catholic Kings also gained territories in North Africa, such as Melilla, and reinforced the government to administer the Canary Islands. Castile also protected the kingdom of Naples, Sicily, Sardinia, and the Balearic Islands.
Bodies Established by the Catholic Kings
- Holy Brotherhood: Persecuted outlaws and controlled the nobility.
- Councils (Consejos): A group of people who advised the kings. These could be ministerial (dealing with a particular issue) or territorial (one in each kingdom).
- Viceroy: The representation of the king in each territory.
- The permanent, professional army.
- The Royal Court (Real Audiencia): Ensured control of justice.
- Royal Finance Accounting (Contaduría Real de Hacienda): Financed new institutions and collected taxes.
- Aldermen (Corregidores): Officials who presided over the council.
Religious Policies
- In 1492, the king expelled the Jews.
- In 1502, all those who had converted to Christianity were expelled.
- The Tribunal of the Holy Inquisition was introduced in Spain in 1478 and was responsible for investigating false converts. Any complaint that arrived did not presume innocence, and torture was practiced to obtain confessions from detainees.