Spanish Geography Glossary: Key Terms & Concepts
Geography of Spain: Glossary of Terms
Relief
Socket
Plain or plateau formed in the primary era as a result of erosion. Sockets are made of granite and hard siliceous rocks.
Meseta
Extensive elevated plain over 200 meters. The Meseta is the fundamental relief unit of the Iberian Peninsula. It’s a high-altitude plain, remnant of the Hercynian orogeny, later deformed by the Alpine orogeny.
Watershed
Land whose waters pour into a main river and its tributaries. Watersheds are separated by areas of changing slope. Spain’s major rivers are the Duero, Tajo, Guadiana, Guadalquivir, Ebro, Turia, Júcar, and Segura.
Failure
Break in the Earth’s crust with displacement of fractured blocks due to tectonic forces. Normal faults have vertical displacement, while tear faults have horizontal displacement.
Cirque
Cavity carved by glaciers at the head of a valley. It’s surrounded by steep walls and often becomes a lake when the ice melts.
Páramos
Flat and high structural surfaces, crowned by a limestone layer resistant to erosion. Rivers have carved valleys that separate smaller tables. Páramos are located in the northern and eastern parts of the Meseta.
Cerro Witness
Isolated rise in front of a tabular zone, indicating its past extent and elevation before erosion.
Delta
Coastal ledge formed when a river deposits more sediment than the sea can redistribute. The most prominent delta in Spain is the Ebro Delta.
Estuary
River valley invaded by the sea. The largest estuaries in Spain are in Galicia, formed by valleys that have been flooded by the sea. Examples include the Arosa and Pontevedra estuaries.
Dune
Hill formed by the accumulation of sand due to wind. Active dunes lack vegetation and constantly change, while inactive dunes are fixed by vegetation.
Valley Glacier
Glacier valley formed by the action of a glacier tongue. It has a characteristic U-shape due to glacial erosion.
Karst/Karst
Landscape formed in limestone areas where water dissolves the rock, creating features like sinkholes, caverns, caves, and gorges.
Massif
Mountain formed by the uplift of a base block during orogenic movements. Massifs have Paleozoic materials and soft, rounded peaks. Examples include the Galician Massif and parts of the Cantabrian Mountains.
Lagoon
Saltwater or slightly brackish lagoon separated from the sea by a sandbar but connected by one or more points. Lagoons are often formed by the silting of bays.
Meander
Curve described by a river, characterized by erosion on the concave bank and deposition on the convex bank. Meanders are common in floodplains.
Peneplane
Gently rolling plain with large trough-shaped valleys, resulting from a long erosion cycle. Peneplanes can be formed on granite or slate. Residual reliefs or island mountains may appear.
Fold
Deformation of sedimentary strata into wave-like shapes due to orogenic movements. Folds can be anticlinal (convex) or synclinal (concave).
Graben
Sunken area between two fault blocks, forming an elongated shape. Also called a rift valley.
Hoz
Deep and narrow slit carved by a river, creating a valley with steep slopes. Hozes are common in karst landscapes.
Gully
Landform characteristic of clay areas with alternating dry and torrential rain periods. Water erodes the sides of streams, creating narrow and deep grooves. Extensive gully development leads to badlands landscapes.
Climate
Continental
Climate characterized by isolated areas with limited maritime influence. It features significant thermal contrast between winter and summer and lower rainfall. Examples include the northern and southern sub-plateaus of Spain.
Anticyclone
High-pressure area surrounded by lower pressure. Winds circulate clockwise and produce stable weather. The Azores High is a major anticyclone influencing Spain’s weather.
Evapotranspiration
Loss of heat from a surface due to evaporation and transpiration from plants and soil.
Windward
Side of a mountain exposed to upward wind flow. Rising air cools, condenses water vapor, and produces precipitation.
Leeward
Side of a mountain exposed to downward wind flow. Descending air warms and dries, resulting in less precipitation.
Solana
Area that receives full sun due to its orientation. In mountains, it’s the south-facing side.
Orographic Effects
Rainfall caused by a mountain barrier that forces air to rise, cool, and condense. Precipitation occurs on the windward side, while the leeward side remains dry.
Insolation
Amount of solar radiation received by the Earth’s surface. Spain receives over 2000 hours of sunshine per year, with variations between regions.
Size or Thermal Swing
Difference between the average temperature of the warmest and coldest months.
Xeric/Xerophytic Vegetation
Plants adapted to dry conditions, such as those found in the Mediterranean climate, especially in southeastern Spain and the Canary Islands.
Isobar
Line connecting points with the same atmospheric pressure. Isobars are used to identify high-pressure (anticyclones) and low-pressure (storms) areas.
Isohyets
Lines connecting points with the same rainfall. They are used to visualize rainfall patterns.
Isotherms
Lines connecting points with the same average temperature. They are used to map temperature distributions.
Climate
Long-term atmospheric conditions characterized by states and time evolution in a particular area. Climate is typically assessed over a 30-year period.
Aridity
Drying of soil due to the relationship between temperature and moisture. Several indexes, such as the Martonne Index, are used to measure aridity.
Foehn Effect
Effect produced on the leeward side of a mountain when air that has been forced to rise and cool on the windward side descends, warms, and dries, resulting in no rain and drought.
Weather Elements
Tangible and measurable aspects of the atmosphere that characterize weather conditions. These include temperature, precipitation, humidity, evaporation, pressure, wind, sunshine, and cloudiness.
Sclerophyllous
Type of vegetation with evergreen, small, tough, leathery leaves adapted to drought. Sclerophyllous plants are common in the Mediterranean climate.
Evaporation
Process of water changing from liquid to vapor at room temperature. Evaporation rates depend mainly on temperature.
Exorheic
Type of surface water drainage where a river system transports water from precipitation, snowmelt, and glaciers to the sea.
Climate Factor
Agent or circumstance that contributes to climate change. Main factors include latitude, maritime influence, altitude, relief, air masses, and the Polar Front.
Lapse Rate
Average decrease in temperature with increasing altitude. The average lapse rate is about 0.65°C per 100 meters.
Polar Front
Contact zone between tropical and polar air masses. It’s a major factor in European climates and its position fluctuates with the seasons.
Rocas (Rocks)
Exogenous rocks formed from the destruction of other rocks, chemical combinations, or the work of living organisms. They are deposited in layers or strata.
Plate Tectonics
Theory explaining orogenies and land morphology by plate collisions. The lithosphere consists of rigid plates that move on the asthenosphere. Plate boundaries are areas of convergence where plates can separate or collide.
Hydrography
Low Water of a River
Period when a river reaches its lowest flow. Level 0 is established at this point to measure water height. Droughts are severe in Mediterranean rivers in southern Spain.
Fluvial Regime
Variation of river flow throughout the year. It depends on rainfall distribution and snowmelt. Regimes can be nival, pluvial, or mixed.
Garriga
Vegetation type in the Mediterranean climate consisting of low shrubs and bushes, leaving bare spots. It’s often the result of forest degradation.
Flow
Volume of water in a river, measured in cubic meters per second. Flow varies along the river’s course and with the season.
Full Flow
Total amount of water discharged by a river over a year, measured in cubic meters. Average flow can be calculated for specific periods.
Relative Flow
Ratio of average annual flow (liters/second) to the basin area (km2). It’s measured in liters/second/km2.
Rambla
Dry riverbed that carries water only during part of the year. Ramblas have a torrential regime and can remain dry for several years.
Population
Población de derecho (De jure Population)
All residents registered in a municipality, regardless of their presence at the time of the census.
Población de hecho (De facto Population)
People present in a municipality at the time of the census, including residents and non-residents.
Natural Increase
Difference between the birth rate and the mortality rate, expressed as a percentage or per thousand.
Life Expectancy
Average number of years a person is expected to live, based on their age and group affiliation.
Ciudad Jardín (Garden City)
City planned around nature, popular in the early 20th century. Garden cities feature small houses with gardens and follow Anglo-Saxon models. Examples can be found in Málaga, Bilbao, and Madrid.