Spanish Habsburgs in the 17th Century: Conflicts and Crises
The Impact of the Discovery of America
The discovery of America was one of the most important events in European history. The known world expanded, confirming the existence of a new continent and the sphericity of the Earth. This changed mapping and navigation, developing and promoting technical breakthroughs and migration. American products gradually came to Europe, enriching the mainland economy. Cotton, cocoa, tobacco, corn, potatoes, and especially gold and silver shaped the economy. The effect generated wealth but also initiated a constant process of inflation. The Spanish adopted a typically colonial approach, viewing the new territory as subordinate and subject to exploitation as an exclusive market for Castilian goods. Among the Creoles, descendants of former Hispanic settlers in America, a consciousness of independence took root, which would attain its maximum growth in the 19th century with the successful development of emancipation.
17th Century Habsburgs: Governance and Internal Conflict
The Spanish Monarchy in the 17th century continued to be a set of realms with distinct institutions and laws. Attempts at unification crashed against the interests of local ruling classes and the fear that Castile’s dominance raised in the other kingdoms.
The Rise of the *Validos*
The main novelty in the Castilian kingdom was the introduction of the *valido*, or favorite. This was a character, almost always a member of the aristocracy, in whom the King deposited his absolute trust, delivering major government decisions. All the kings of the 17th century had such advisers. The most prominent were the Duke of Lerma, the Count-Duke of Olivares, and Fernando Valenzuela. The majority of the *validos* ruled outside the Councils. From their positions of power, they sidelined their enemies and placed trusted men in the most important positions. Corruption increased, and the boldest *validos* took advantage of their influence to control the sale of offices of all kinds (subject to inheritance) as a way to get money quickly. Opposition to the *validos* came from the lawyers who led the councils and members of the aristocracy.
Internal Conflicts: The Expulsion of the Moors
In 1609, Felipe III (1598-1621) decreed the expulsion of the Moors from the peninsular kingdoms. The Moorish minority in Castile was scattered but highly concentrated in the kingdoms of Aragon and Valencia. The deportation order was executed first in the kingdom of Valencia. It is estimated that between 275,000 and 400,000 Moors left the peninsula. The implications were very serious in Valencia and Aragon, as the Moors constituted a third of the population of Valencia and a fifth of the Aragonese. Most were farmers. The nobility protested the loss of skilled and docile labor, but they were compensated by the Crown.
The Reign of Philip IV and the Union of Arms
In the reign of Philip IV (1621-1665), the Count-Duke of Olivares tackled an ambitious tax reform intended to impose absolute rule. Its aim was to increase the revenues of the Crown. He proposed the project known as the Union of Arms (1625), which would create an army of 140,000 men, recruited and maintained by each realm in proportion to its demographic and economic resources. This project clashed with the reality of economic and social crisis, especially the resistance of the various rights and privileges that existed in the peninsular kingdoms.
The Crisis of 1640
The Crisis of 1640 was a time of serious rebellions in different territories of the Habsburg monarchy. There were clear separatist movements, often supported by other European countries. The major riots occurred in Catalonia and Portugal, but there were also uprisings in Andalusia (1641), Naples, and Sicily (1647).
The Catalan Revolt
The intent of the Count-Duke of Olivares and his project of the Union of Arms failed miserably in Catalonia. Moreover, the nagging presence of Spanish troops was compounded by France’s entry in 1635 into the Thirty Years’ War against the Spanish monarchy. In 1640, a rebellion took place on the day of Corpus Christi (Corpus de Sang), resulting in the murder of the Viceroy of Catalonia. The Catalan government decided to offer the county of Barcelona to Louis XIII of France. In 1652, the troops of King Philip IV entered Barcelona, ending the secession.
The Portuguese Restoration War
The example of Catalonia encouraged Portugal to rebel. There were popular uprisings, and Portuguese nobles revolted in December 1640, choosing a new king for the crown, John IV. The Spanish-Portuguese war lasted until 1668. Riots continued in Andalusia (1641), Aragon and Navarre (1646), and Italy (1647).