Spanish Habsburgs: Rise, Conflicts, and Social Transformations
The Clash with France
Charles I and Francis I of France clashed over control of Italian kingdoms and duchies. In the initial phase, Charles’ troops won the Battle of Pavia in 1525. However, the pro-French stance of the Pope led to setbacks. Conflicts with France continued, eventually witnessing Spanish victories at St. Quentin and the signing of the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis. In 1593, Henry IV converted to Catholicism, leading to peace between Spain and France with the Treaty of Vervins.
Clashes with England
England had been allied with Spain against France. Philip II’s second wife was Mary Tudor, but after her death without issue, her stepsister, Elizabeth I, supported Flemish Protestants and protected English pirates who attacked Spanish ships. Philip II decided to confront England, preparing a large fleet (the Spanish Armada) for an attack.
Domination of the Ottoman Empire in the Mediterranean
The Ottoman Empire was a major power in the Mediterranean. After conquering Constantinople in 1453 and making it their capital, they aimed to expand further into Europe. Barbary pirates threatened maritime trade. Charles I successfully attacked Tunisia, but a later attack failed. During Philip II’s reign, the Ottomans threatened throughout the Mediterranean, taking Cyprus and Tunisia. The confrontation culminated in the Battle of Lepanto, where Christian forces were victorious.
The Revolt of the Netherlands
The war in the Netherlands was Philip II’s biggest challenge. Discontent among the bourgeois due to heavy taxation and religious conflict (the spread of Calvinism) fueled the rebellion. The revolt began in Flanders, with support from France and England. Counts of Horn and Egmont led the rebels, forcing Philip II to send his best generals. In 1579, the southern Netherlands accepted Philip II’s rule, but the northern provinces formed the United Provinces and continued the fight. The rebellion was never fully controlled, and Philip II designated his daughter as governor. Without heirs, the region reverted to the Spanish Crown, reigniting the conflict.
A Stratified Society: Predominance of Nobility
16th-century Spanish society was marked by the dominance of nobility and clergy, and the persecution of religious dissidents. Conservative groups held sway, with the highest value placed on noble lineage. Around 5% of the population held titles. Purchasing titles was common. The clergy, comprising 5-10% of the population, also showed disparities. The higher clergy lived like nobles, while the lower clergy’s lives resembled those of artisans. Non-privileged groups included peasants and urban populations subject to taxes. Moors and converted Jews faced marginalization due to their origins, as “purity of blood” was crucial for social prestige.
Comunidades and Germanías
Early in Charles I’s reign, uprisings occurred in Castile. The Comunidades demanded more attention to Castilian affairs. In 1520, with Charles in Germany, several cities revolted, forming a provisional government and offering the crown to Charles’ mother. This movement united gentry and urban middle classes, who demanded protection of domestic industry, respect for laws, and greater political participation. The Germanías, primarily in Valencia, saw artisans and lower bourgeoisie rise against the oligarchy, nobility, and higher clergy, seeking democratization and royal protection. They were defeated in 1521.
Religious Intolerance and Authoritarianism
Amidst the Reformation and Counter-Reformation, Philip II strongly supported the Council of Trent’s principles. Laws were enacted to prevent the importation and study of Protestant books. The monarchy revoked the special status of the Moriscos (converted Moors), accusing them of collusion with Barbary pirates and Turks. Their situation worsened with increased taxes on silk. In 1566, a decree banned their language, dress, and traditions. A Moorish uprising in 1568 was suppressed two years later. Religious dissent was punished, and any opposition to royal authority was suppressed. The case of Antonio Pérez, Philip II’s secretary, highlighted the conflict between the Crown of Aragon and the monarchy’s centralizing ambitions.
The Struggle Against the Protestants
The Protestant Reformation was a major challenge for Charles I. Martin Luther’s call for church reform led to the Diet of Worms. Protestantism spread among German princes and in Flanders. Charles aimed to combat Protestantism through political and religious means. He defeated the Protestant princes at Mühlberg, leading to the Peace of Augsburg, which allowed princes to choose the religion of their states.