Spanish History: 16th and 17th Century Politics and Society
Spain in the Sixteenth Century: The Political Model of the Habsburgs
The first two Habsburgs increased royal power and improved the administration of the state. They tried to surround themselves with lawyers and modest officials, away from the aristocracy of politics.
In each kingdom, a viceroy was placed representing the king, except in the Netherlands, where a governor general ruled. To advise the king in decision-making, councils were formed by lawyers, officials, nobles, and ecclesiastics. These were divided into two categories: those with administrative territorial functions in each of the kingdoms (Castile, Aragon, Italy, India, etc.) and those responsible for certain areas of governance (Finance, Inquisition, etc.). All acted in court with the king and were consultative; decisions were made by the monarch.
It was a very effective system, and Charles I came to use the secretary as an intermediary between the councils and the king.
Economy and Society in Sixteenth-Century Spain
During the first half of the century, the Castilian economy was booming thanks to trade and the arrival of precious metals from America. Aragon experienced a period of stagnation. Agriculture extended its surface because the population grew and the demand for food increased. In Castile, sheep predominated, and wool was exported. Handicrafts grew due to increased American demand but were losing competitiveness against foreign production due to technological backwardness and its status as a dishonorable activity. Trade with Europe was in deficit, but with America, being a Castilian monopoly, it generated tremendous benefits that helped finance wars and pay trade debts with Europe.
Privileged social groups, nobility, and clergy were subject to royal authority but continued to maintain their privileges and economic power. The common people were composed mostly of peasants. The bourgeoisie had little development since their activities were not well regarded in the society of the time.
Culture, Mentality, and the Inquisition
In the 16th century, Spain adopted the literary and artistic trends of the Renaissance. The instrument of cultural diffusion was Castilian. In the field of literature, the most important contributions were in poetry with Garcilaso and Boscán, and in theater with Fernando de Rojas (La Celestina). In the novel, the most representative work is Lazarillo de Tormes, an anonymous work that initiated the picaresque novel. The atmosphere of religious exaltation led to Counter-Reformation mystical literature with authors such as Saint Teresa of Ávila and Saint John of the Cross.
Renaissance art in Spain also spread through contacts with Italy, the arrival of artists from this area, and the training trips of Spanish artists, although its full acceptance was slowed by the influence of the Gothic.
The Inquisition consolidated its organization to defend Catholicism, broadening its scope to other crimes such as witchcraft, blasphemy, bigamy, and homosexuality. It became a formidable instrument of political and religious repression.
The Habsburgs in the 17th Century: The *Validos* and Internal Conflicts
Monarchs introduced the figure of the valido into government, similar to other European kingdoms. The valido was a member of the aristocracy in whom the king placed his confidence, giving him the major decisions of government. The validos tried to govern aside from the councils, which reduced controlled positions and granted favors of all sorts to their families and favorites. The opposition to the validos was led by lawyers, who were part of the councils, and members of the aristocracy who were removed from the court.
In Catalonia, Valencia, and Portugal, there were conflicts over tax policy and the attitude of the Castilian viceroys and governors. Serious incidents occurred, especially in Barcelona, where the viceroys demanded payment of tax arrears and faced the problem of banditry.
The Crisis of 1640
The Count-Duke of Olivares proposed reforms to address the war. The Union of Arms was to create an army of more than 140,000 men, provided proportionately by all the kingdoms of the monarchy, along with the resources to maintain them.
Catalonia was the first to revolt. The war with France had turned it into a military front. The royal troops residing there created tensions among the population, who rioted in Barcelona, killing the viceroy. The Catalans sought help from France, who defeated the Castilian army, and in 1641, they accepted French sovereignty. This situation lasted until 1652.
Portugal, incorporated into Spain since 1580, also rejected the policy of Olivares, rebelled, and the Cortes named the Duke of Braganza (John IV) as king. France and England supported him, and it was impossible to recover Portugal.
The Decline of Spanish Rule in Europe
In the reign of Philip IV (1621-1665), Spain fought across Europe (Germany, Italy, Flanders, France) with participation in the Thirty Years’ War alongside the Emperor. The war ended with the Peace of Westphalia (1648), which meant the defeat of the Habsburgs. The war between France and Spain eventually ended with the Peace of the Pyrenees (1659), with Spain again being defeated and losing territories in Europe and in the peninsula, such as Roussillon and Cerdanya. The clash against England for American trade resulted in the loss of Jamaica in 1655 and the start of trade negotiations. More than forty years of war resulted in a series of losses that eliminated Spanish hegemony in Europe.
In 1665, Charles II inherited the Crown of Spain. He failed to have offspring, and the succession became one of the most important issues for Europe. The two candidates were Archduke Charles of Austria and Philip of Anjou of France. Charles II left the French candidate as his heir.
Economic and Social Trends in the 17th Century
Up to the middle of the century, the economy suffered a deep crisis, but it was more pronounced in inland areas than in the periphery, where recovery began earlier thanks to agricultural changes. These changes involved the introduction of maize in the north and east and specialization in crops such as vines, olives, and rice, which were the beginning of commercial farming.
Socially, privileged groups grew due to the sale of titles by the Crown; they lived on rents by exploiting the peasantry. The productive classes were increasingly burdened with taxes and had fewer resources. The number of poor and beggars increased, causing popular rebellions and banditry.
Mentality and Culture in the Golden Age
In the 17th century, science and universities entered a deep crisis. Their control by the clergy and the Inquisition caused the decline of thought, science, and technology.
In literature, it was a true Golden Age. Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes was published. The theater had great figures such as Lope de Vega, Calderón de la Barca, and Tirso de Molina. Quevedo excelled in poetry, along with Góngora, who headed the literary trends of *conceptismo* and *culteranismo*, respectively.
The same is true of art, with architects like Alonso Cano and Pedro de Ribera, sculptors such as Gregorio Fernández and Martínez Montañés, and great painters like Murillo, Zurbarán, and especially Velázquez, court painter of Philip IV and one of the greatest painters of all time.