Spanish History: Exploration, Enlightenment, and Crisis
The Discovery of America
The discovery of America was not an unforeseen event, but the result of a series of maritime explorations in search of a new route to India. The causes that prompted the Europeans to search for that continent were:
- Economic (gold and spices)
- Political (prestige for the monarchy)
The Treaty of Alcaçovas divided the Atlantic expansion between Castile and Portugal, reserving the south for the Portuguese. This prevented Castile from following the usual route to reach the East Indies. Columbus presented his project to the Catholic Monarchs in Alcalá de Henares in 1486. It was rejected both then and again in 1491. However, in April 1492, the Catholic Monarchs summoned Columbus to the Santa Fe camp. During that meeting, Columbus was granted everything he had requested and even more. The change in attitude has given rise to various theories, including the “anonymous pre-Columbian navigator” theory. According to this theory, a navigator had made the trip before Columbus, so the information that Columbus had about distances and routes was presented to the Catholic Monarchs not as a mere hypothesis but as proven certainties. Through the Capitulations of Santa Fe, Columbus was made Admiral, Viceroy of the lands he discovered, was subsidized for 7/8 of the trip, and was given one-tenth of the profits. The discovery of America made it necessary to renegotiate with Portugal the lines of influence of each state. In June 1494, the Treaty of Tordesillas was signed. This treaty established the boundary between the areas of expansion of both countries at 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. Everything east of that line belonged to Portugal (except the Canary Islands), and everything west belonged to Castile.
The Enlightenment in Spain
The Enlightenment was a philosophical and cultural movement characteristic of the 18th century that originated in France. It was based on the supremacy of reason as an instrument of knowledge. Within the Spanish Enlightenment, we can distinguish two generations:
- The first generation is represented by Jerónimo Feijoo and Enrique Flórez (dealing with the critical analysis of tradition).
- The second generation consists of individuals close to the Crown, such as Olavide, Campomanes, Floridablanca, Aranda, and Jovellanos.
They worried about the decline of Spain and possible solutions. They believed that this decline had economic roots. Their main points were:
- The need to develop useful science in Spain to support economic development.
- The need for educational reform with curricula suited to the needs of the country.
- Criticism of superstition, the discrediting of artisanal and commercial activities, the weakness of agriculture, the lack of interest in science and technology, and the privileges of the Church and the Nobility.
- The acceptance of Enlightenment ideas only if compatible with religion.
The Spanish Enlightenment emphasized the importance of education. Cultural institutions were founded, and a university reform was initiated. Important roles were played by the Royal Society of Friends of the Country, which acted as centers for the dissemination of Enlightenment ideas, and the Royal Academies (Language, Fine Arts, History).
The Crisis of 1640
To understand the outbreak of the crisis of 1640, we must consider two facts: the high cost of maintaining the Hispanic Empire and the fact that the costs of its maintenance rested primarily on Castile, since both Aragon and Portugal retained their charters. The trigger for this crisis lies in the centralizing and Castilian-focused policy of the Count-Duke of Olivares, specifically in his “Union of Arms” project. This project aimed to distribute the costs of the empire and the army among all the kingdoms of the Monarchy in proportion to their population and wealth. It ignored the privileges that had been respected since the time of the Catholic Monarchs. The responses of the various kingdoms to this project are known as the “Crisis of 1640.” The Catalan Revolt: Olivares presented his project to the Catalan Parliament on three occasions (1626, 1632, and 1635), and all three times it was rejected. By 1640, the war with France made the need for men and money more pressing, requiring the cooperation of Catalonia (Castilian troops had to be stationed there and Catalan troops had to be moved to French territory). Faced with Catalonia’s refusal, Olivares decided to detain members of the Consell de Cent and force the Catalans to maintain the Castilian troops. In response, on April 30, 1640, the sheriff who was sent to enforce the billeting of troops was assassinated. A few days later, a riot broke out during which the viceroy was murdered. The Catalan oligarchy decided to take advantage of this popular uprising to resolve their dispute with the monarchy. The Generalitat and its president, Pau Clarís, called for the support of France to expel the Spanish and achieve independence. In September 1640, French troops entered Catalonia, conquering it in January 1641. Catalonia then came under the sovereignty of Louis XIII, ceasing to be part of the Spanish monarchy.