Spanish History: From Napoleonic Wars to the Second Republic
War with France (1808-1814)
Charles IV of Spain opposed the ideas of the French Revolution and lost the Treaty of Fontainebleau. Ferdinand VII incited the Mutiny of Aranjuez, leading to his father’s abdication. Napoleon pressured the Spanish royal family to abdicate and installed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as king. On May 2, 1808, attacks on French soldiers began the Peninsular War. The Spanish people were divided into two factions: those who supported the French (afrancesados) and those who supported the Spanish cause (patriots). Ferdinand VII was held prisoner at Valençay until the end of the war.
Cadiz Constitutional Court (1812)
The war created political consequences. The Junta Central announced the Cortes of Cádiz, which included liberal and absolutist members. They created the Constitution of 1812, which recognized national sovereignty, the separation of powers, and a declaration of rights.
Restoration of Absolutism (1814-1820)
In 1814, Ferdinand VII returned and rejected the Cadiz Constitution, restoring the old regime. He established a totalitarian government and persecuted liberals, forcing many into exile.
Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)
In 1820, a liberal victory led by Rafael de Riego forced the king to swear to uphold the Constitution and hold elections.
Carlist Wars and the Ominous Decade (1823-1833)
A major economic crisis led the king to create a council of ministers. A dynastic problem arose because women could not inherit the throne. However, Ferdinand VII changed the law to allow his daughter, Isabella, to become queen. When Ferdinand VII died, his brother, Carlos, claimed the throne, starting the First Carlist War. The war was fought between liberals and Carlists (supporters of Carlos). The war ended with the Agreement of Vergara.
Triumph of Liberalism under Isabella II (1833-1868)
Maria Cristina, Isabella’s mother, acted as regent. Liberals were divided into two groups: moderates and progressives. Maria Cristina initially sided with the progressives, led by Mendizábal, who implemented measures such as the confiscation of church lands and the Constitution of 1837. In 1840, Maria Cristina resigned and Espartero ruled until 1843 when he was exiled along with the 13-year-old Queen Isabella II.
Moderate Decade (1844-1854)
The moderate government, led by Narváez, established the Constitution of 1845, which restricted voting rights to the wealthy and limited freedom of the press. The state was organized in a centralized manner. In 1849, the Democratic Party came to power. In 1854, O’Donnell’s coup ended the moderate phase.
Final Crisis of Isabella II’s Reign (1854-1868)
Economic problems and the moderate government’s monopoly on power led to revolts and public discontent with the queen.
Revolution of 1868 and the Reign of Amadeo I (1868-1873)
In 1868, Isabella II was overthrown by Serrano and Prim and went into exile. Serrano established a provisional government and chaired the Cortes that drafted the Constitution of 1869. The government, led by Prim, sought a new king and chose Amadeo of Savoy. However, Amadeo was not accepted by everyone. Conflicts arose, including the Third Carlist War and the Ten Years’ War in Cuba, leading to Amadeo’s abdication.
First Republic (1873-1874)
The First Republic was marked by conflicts between republicans and monarchists. The Republic faced the Third Carlist War, the Ten Years’ War in Cuba, and coups led by Pavia (11 months) and Serrano (1 year).
Armed Peace (1890-1914)
Germany, under Chancellor Bismarck, created a system of alliances with two objectives: isolating France, which desired revenge for its defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, and maintaining the balance of power in the Balkans, where Austria and Russia had conflicting interests. After the death of William I, his grandson, William II, became emperor and pursued aggressive expansionist policies. European powers were divided into two military blocs: the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente. This led to a fear of an arms race.
Crisis of the Summer of 1914
Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife were assassinated in Sarajevo. On July 23, Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum to Serbia, threatening war. Serbia, with the support of Russia, rejected the ultimatum. Germany declared war on Russia and France, and Great Britain declared war on Germany. The Triple Alliance was broken.
Paris Peace Treaties (1919-1920)
The Paris Peace Conference resulted in a series of treaties signed by the defeated countries, including the Treaty of Versailles with Germany and the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye with Austria. The Treaty of Versailles was based on US President Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points. Wilson had three goals: preventing the resurgence of Germany, maintaining a balance of power, and keeping Russia isolated.
Territorial Changes
Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, Poland, and Romania underwent significant territorial changes.
Crisis of 1898
The independence movement in Cuba in 1895 led to the Spanish-American War. Spain’s defeat and the loss of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines caused frustration and led to the emergence of regenerationism in Spanish politics, advocated by intellectuals like Joaquin Costa.
Reign of Alfonso XIII (1902-1923)
The Conservative Party, led by Maura and Cánovas, aimed to end caciquismo (political bossism). The Liberal Party, led by Sagasta and Canalejas, advocated for political decentralization and the Law of the Padlock. The Restoration system eventually collapsed due to the Tragic Week of 1909 and social unrest between 1917 and 1923.
Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1923-1930)
With the consent of King Alfonso XIII, Miguel Primo de Rivera staged a coup. He suspended the constitution, dissolved the Cortes, and banned political parties. He ended the Rif War in Morocco. The dictatorship was sustained by the economic prosperity of the 1920s. In 1929, the king withdrew his support, and Primo de Rivera resigned.
Second Republic (1931-1939)
In 1931, elections were held, and the republicans won. Alfonso XIII went into exile, and a provisional government was formed, proclaiming the Second Republic.
Provisional Government and the Constitution of 1931
The provisional government, led by Niceto Alcalá-Zamora, drafted the Constitution of 1931. The Constitution established a democratic regime, recognized liberties, separated church and state, introduced universal suffrage, created a decentralized state, and emphasized social welfare.
Reformist Biennium (1931-1933): Reforms
The government implemented reforms aimed at improving agricultural production and the lives of farmers, including land expropriation and redistribution. It also granted autonomy to Catalonia, reformed the military and education systems, and implemented labor reforms.
Opposition to Reforms
The reforms were opposed by large landowners and high-ranking members of the Church.
Conservative Biennium (1933-1935)
The Radical Republican Party, led by Alejandro Lerroux, formed a government and halted the previous government’s reforms. The entrance of the CEDA (Spanish Confederation of the Autonomous Right) into the government caused the left to attempt to seize power in the October Revolution. The revolution succeeded in Asturias but was suppressed by Franco. The government responded with repression.
Popular Front (1935-1936)
Left-wing parties, including socialists, communists, and anarchists, united to form the Popular Front. Right-wing extremist parties, such as the Spanish Falange, led by José Antonio Primo de Rivera, opposed them. The Popular Front won the elections and resumed the reforms, releasing prisoners from the October Revolution. Manuel Azaña became president. In 1936, José Calvo Sotelo (right-wing leader) was assassinated in retaliation for the assassination of José Castillo (left-wing leader).
Internationalization of the Conflict and the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)
Public opinion was divided between supporters of the Republic and supporters of a military coup. The Spanish Civil War began in July 1936.
Modernizing Catalan Culture
The standardization period (20th century) saw Catalan writers, scientists, and artists promoting Catalan culture. Important institutions were created, such as the Palau de la Música Catalana, the Institute of Catalan Studies, and the Library of Catalonia.
Silver Age of Spanish Culture
- Generation of ’98: Intellectuals influenced by the loss of the Spanish colonies. Their works addressed Spain’s problems and proposed solutions.
- Generation of ’14: Intellectuals who sought to connect with the masses through their works.
- Generation of ’27: Artists open to influences from both Spain and abroad.