Spanish History: From War of Succession to Carlist Wars
The War of Succession (1700-1714)
The War of Succession arose from the childless death of Charles II and his appointment of Philip V of the Bourbon dynasty as his successor. Charles of Austria, also linked to the throne, contested this decision, leading to an international conflict. France and Spain supported Philip V, while Britain, Holland, and Portugal backed Austria. The war also had a civil war aspect within Spain, with Castile and Aragon divided in their support for the two claimants. The war concluded with the Treaty of Utrecht, which recognized Philip V as king but resulted in Spain losing European possessions.
Enlightened Absolutism: Carlos III
Enlightened despotism was a form of governance practiced by monarchs influenced by Enlightenment ideals. It aimed to rule for the benefit of the people but without their direct participation. Carlos III, the most reformist Bourbon king, exemplified this approach. He continued the reform policies of his predecessors, strengthening the monarchy’s power against the nobility and the Church. He expelled the Jesuits and implemented a degree of democratization in the council by electing municipal councilors. Carlos III also pursued economic modernization programs in agriculture, the navy, and universities, including the liberalization of colonial trade.
War of Independence (1808-1814)
The War of Independence began with the abdication of Bayonne, when the Spanish monarchs were abroad and the Regency Council took control. The French army occupied Spain, triggering a popular uprising in Madrid on May 2, 1808. The French army’s brutal response sparked revolts across Spain, lasting until 1814. Local defense boards, led by nobles and commoners, coordinated the resistance and formed a military alliance with England.
Military Developments
The war saw Spanish counteroffensives and French offensives between 1808 and 1810. The Battle of Bailén saw a Spanish victory against Napoleon’s army, prompting Napoleon to personally lead the war effort in Spain. The French occupied most of Spain, except for Cadiz, where the Cortes (parliament) resided. Guerrilla warfare played a significant role, with small, flexible bands attacking French communication lines and supply routes.
Political Divisions
The conflict also revealed political divisions within Spain. A minority of nobles and officials, known as the pro-French, supported Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleon’s brother, who was installed as King Joseph I. The majority, the patriots, opposed French rule. The patriots were further divided into absolutists, who sought a return to the traditional monarchy, and liberals, who advocated for political change and a constitutional government.
End of the War
The cities of Zaragoza and Gerona endured prolonged sieges. An Anglo-Spanish offensive launched from Portugal culminated in the Battle of Salamanca, where the Duke of Wellington’s forces defeated the French army. The war concluded with the Treaty of Valençay in 1813.
Cortes of Cadiz and the Constitution of 1812
The Central Junta, formed in 1810, convened the Cortes in Cadiz in 1811 due to French pressure. The Cortes, dominated by representatives from the commercial city of Cadiz, operated as a single chamber and adopted the principle of national sovereignty. The liberal majority drafted the Constitution of 1812, influenced by the French Constitution. The Constitution aimed to dismantle the old regime by abolishing privileges of the nobility and the Church. Key reforms included the abolition of primogeniture, the abolition of the Inquisition, and the suppression of internal customs barriers to promote free trade.
Constitution of 1812 (La Pepa)
The Constitution, nicknamed “La Pepa” because it was promulgated on St. Joseph’s Day, established a declaration of rights, including freedom of the press, association, and expression. It affirmed national sovereignty, vesting power in the nation and its citizens. It also established the separation of powers, with executive power held by the king, legislative power by the Cortes, and judicial power by the courts. The Constitution created a constitutional monarchy and maintained Catholicism as the state religion.
Ferdinand VII and the Restoration of Absolutism (1814-1820)
Upon his return to Spain in 1814, Ferdinand VII rejected the Constitution of 1812 and restored absolutist rule through the Manifesto of the Persians. He reinstated the old regime, facing opposition from liberals who staged military uprisings. The country’s finances were severely strained by the War of Independence and the loss of American colonies.
Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)
In 1820, a military uprising led by Rafael del Riego forced Ferdinand VII to accept the Constitution of 1812. The Liberal Triennium saw the implementation of some reforms, including the liberalization of industry and commerce, but faced opposition from the king. Tensions arose within the liberal movement between moderates and radicals.
The Ominous Decade (1823-1833)
The Holy Alliance, responding to Ferdinand VII’s request, intervened in Spain with a French army known as the “Hundred Thousand Sons of St. Louis.” This intervention ended the Liberal Triennium and restored Ferdinand VII as absolute monarch. A period of repression followed, targeting liberals and forcing many into exile. The loss of American colonies further exacerbated the country’s economic crisis, leading to calls for cooperation with the moderate bourgeoisie.
Dynastic Conflict and the Carlist Wars
Ferdinand VII’s decision to abolish the Salic Law, which prevented female succession, in favor of his daughter Isabella, sparked the Carlist Wars. The Carlists, a conservative faction, supported the claim of Ferdinand’s brother, Carlos. The First Carlist War (1833-1839) began upon Ferdinand’s death, marking a new chapter in Spanish history.