Spanish History: Monarchy Crisis to Civil War (1898-1939)
The Decline of the Monarchy and the Rise of the Republic (1898-1939)
The Decline of the *Turno* (1898-1917)
The Conservative Reformist Stage
The reign of Alfonso XIII (1902) began with a crisis caused by the disaster of 1898. This led the dynastic parties to initiate reforms to regenerate Spanish political life. While *Turno* parties were losing influence, the opposition became stronger:
- The Republicans increased their electoral influence.
- Catalan nationalist groups achieved a broad victory in 1907.
- Socialism and trade unions consolidated their presence.
- Anarchists continued their activities.
The Tragic Week
In 1909, there was a deterioration in political life due to the uprising in Barcelona, known as the Tragic Week. The revolt was started by opposition to the recruitment of soldiers for the war in Morocco. The uprising was quelled by the army, and repression was very harsh. These events led to the rejection of public opinion and the resignation of Maura. In this situation, the king ordered the formation of a new Liberal government.
Liberal Reformism
Since 1910, the Liberals began a reform experience. José Canalejas sought a strengthening of the civil power of the State and reduced the influence of the Catholic Church. He also started a certain decentralization of the state, which resulted in the Commonwealth of Catalonia. The murder of Canalejas by anarchists in 1912 ushered in a period of instability that led the Conservatives back to power after 1913.
The Crisis of 1917
In response to increasing social problems, Conservative Eduardo Dato ruled in an authoritarian manner, closing the courts and ruling by decree-law. Unrest broke out in 1917 and caused a huge protest movement. The political opposition demanded the resignation of the government and the convening of a Constituent Assembly. Groups of soldiers clashed with government policy, and the unions called a general revolutionary strike. This crisis reflected the deteriorating political and social life.
Food Crisis and Dictatorship (1917-1931)
The Decline of the Monarchy (1917-1923)
Governments of Concentration: With the crisis of 1917, successive governments of concentration (Liberals, Conservatives, Catalan nationalists) were formed but did not stabilize the system.
Social Conflict: Trade unions and leftist political groups led labor mobilizations. Among industrial workers, the labor struggle was more intense.
The Defeat of Annual: In 1921, at Annual, the Spanish army suffered a heavy defeat. Responsibilities were demanded for this defeat. Sectors of the military led a coup.
The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1923-1931)
In 1923, General Primo de Rivera, with the consent of Alfonso XIII, staged a coup that ushered in a military dictatorship inspired by Italian Fascism. The new regime instituted a military dictatorship, suspended the constitution, dissolved parliament, and banned political parties and trade unions. The dictatorship lasted until 1930 when the dictator resigned, lacking support, and Alfonso XIII appointed General Berenguer as prime minister.
From Monarchy to Republic
The Proclamation of the Republic
Municipal elections were held in 1931 and presented as a referendum between monarchy and republic. The Republican-Socialist coalition won in the big cities and industrial regions. The results showed a rejection of the monarchy and a desire for political change. Thousands of citizens took to the streets to demand the proclamation of the Republic. Given the new situation, King Alfonso XIII fled the country into exile. On April 14, 1931, a republic was proclaimed.
The Provisional Government
A provisional government was immediately formed, composed of Republicans, Socialists, and the Catalan left. It initiated the first reforms:
- Amnesty for political prisoners and freedom of parties and unions.
- Social laws to improve the situation of day laborers.
- Establishment of a provisional Generalitat of Catalonia.
The 1931 Constitution
The Constitution recognized male and female suffrage and proclaimed the secular nature of the State. It presented a statement of individual rights and established extensive public and private freedoms. Legislative power resided in Parliament, and executive power in the Council of Ministers and the President of the Republic. The State was set up as integral but accepted the possibility of setting up autonomous governments in some regions. Once the Constitution was approved, Niceto Alcalá Zamora was elected President of the Republic.
The Reformist Biennium (1931-1933)
Republican Reforms
- Military Reform: Azaña initiated a reform of the army, developing a retirement law that allowed the retirement of half of the officers. He subjected the military to civil authority.
- Religious and Educational Reform: The Constitution separated church and state. The government tried to promote secular education.
- Decentralization: The constitution paved the way for decentralization of the state, offering the possibility of autonomous status to create autonomous governments.
- Agrarian Reform: Addressed the problem of large landed estates.
Opposition to Reforms
Republican reformism was met with opposition from large landowners, the hierarchy of the Catholic Church, part of the army, and sectors of the upper and middle classes. In 1932, a coup led by General Sanjurjo was stopped by the government. The right-wing forces regrouped in the Spanish Confederation of Autonomous Rights (CEDA). A fascist group, the Spanish Falange, emerged. Carlist monarchists joined the opposition. From the workers’ side, the UGT was radicalized, and anarchist groups pushed for armed insurrection. There were uprisings.
The Conservative Biennium and the Popular Front (1933-1936)
The Right-Wing Governments
The government went into crisis. Azaña resigned, and President Alcalá Zamora dissolved Parliament and called new elections for November 1933. The elections were won by parties of the right and center, and Alejandro Lerroux, of the Radical Party, was elected president with the parliamentary support of the CEDA. The new government initiated a process of dismantling the reforms of the previous biennium. This situation led to the radicalization of the left parties.
The Riots of 1934
In 1934, there was a government reshuffle that ushered in three CEDA ministers. This sparked the outbreak of riots across the country. In Asturias, the revolution took a more social turn. In Catalonia, President Lluís Companys led the insurrection and proclaimed the Catalan state within the Spanish Republic. The rebellion was quelled.
The Popular Front (1936)
The rift between the government coalition parties and corruption scandals in the government led to the call for new elections in 1936. The center-left forces grouped in the Popular Front. The right was split between the National Bloc, the CEDA, and the Spanish Falange. Their program was to amend the Constitution in a conservative direction. The Popular Front won the elections. Manuel Azaña was named President of the Republic.
The Preparation of the Coup
The division between right and left was felt on the street. The most radical sectors of the left advocated social revolution. The right-wing extremists advocated the need for a coup that would put an end to the Republic and the reform process. Tensions between opposing blocs triggered a violent social climate. This climate of violence was the pretext from which the conservative forces decided to stop the Republican reform process by force.
The Outbreak of the Civil War (1936-1939)
Coup and Civil War
In July 1936, an important sector of the army, led by General Franco, joined by traditionalists and Falangists, staged a coup. They took over the governing bodies of cities and formed a board of military officials to end the Popular Front government. On July 19, José Giral, the new head of government, gave arms to militias and parties of the Popular Front to stop the coup. Spain was divided into two zones, which led to the outbreak of the Civil War.
The Internationalization of the Conflict
The European political situation in 1936 was very tense, due to the rise of Italian Fascism and German Nazism. Thus, the Spanish Civil War had a great international impact. The war in Spain was seen as a confrontation between democratic forces and fascist regimes. The rebel soldiers had German and Italian aid. In order not to aggravate the tension in Europe, France and Britain led a policy of non-intervention in the Spanish war. Non-intervention hurt the Republic, which was left without the help of European democracies.
The Two Sides Face to Face
The Republican Zone: War and Revolution
Social Revolution: Committees were formed, and anticlericalism broke out with great force. Every symbol that was aristocratic, bourgeois, or religious was persecuted as an enemy. In September 1936, a coalition government was formed with Republicans, Communists, Socialists, and Anarchists, and a People’s Army was established.
The Confrontation of 1937: There was a division within the Republican forces, and there was an armed clash in Barcelona. As a result, Juan Negrín formed a new government without the presence of Anarchists and with Communist influence.
The Rebel Zone: A Military Dictatorship
The New State: It was inspired by Fascism and defended a social model based on conservatism and the primacy of Catholicism. One of the primary goals of the national authorities was to end Republican reforms.
Systematic Repression: In areas dominated by Franco, systematic persecution of Popular Front organizations and their representatives was institutionalized. The repression affected all those who had supported the Republic and also those who did not express their adherence to the new regime.
The Evolution of the War
Conflict Development
Progress Towards Madrid: The strategy of the rebels was to advance from the south towards Madrid and take the capital. Successive attempts failed, and they changed the front.
The Battle of the North: Between April and October 1937, the Battle of the North was fought. There was the bombing of Guernica, and Bilbao and other areas of northern Spain were occupied.
The Battle of the Ebro: In 1938, rebel troops advanced on Aragon and reached the Mediterranean through the Castellón area. Catalonia was isolated. To prevent the advance of the rebels, the government of the Republic concentrated its forces at the Battle of the Ebro.
The End of the War and Exile
In February 1939, only Madrid and the central area were in Republican hands. A coup in Madrid created a board that tried unsuccessfully to negotiate with Franco. On April 1, 1939, a war dispatch declared the conflict ended. With the Republican defeat, exile began due to the fear of Francoist repression. It is estimated that more than half a million Spaniards crossed the French border. A long exile began. Thousands of Spanish Republicans, exiled in France, participated in the resistance against the Nazis during the Second World War. Some were imprisoned in concentration camps.